CHAPTER III. FRANCE DURING THE SECOND WORLD WAR

On September 1, 1939, Nazi Germany attacked Poland. France and Great Britain declared war on Germany. The Second World War began. Poland did not receive any real military assistance from its “guarantors”, France and England. As a result, the Polish army was defeated by Germany in two weeks. On the Western Front, the Germans did not take any decisive action. Great Britain and France did not take the military initiative, hoping that Germany would deliver the main blow in the East. Since there was no fighting on the Western Front from September 1939 to May 1940, this period was called the “Phantom War” in France.

In the fall of 1939, the cabinet of Edouard Daladier was still in power. In March 1940, he was replaced by a government led by the famous right-wing politician Paul Reynaud (March - June 1940).

The cabinets of Daladier and Reynaud, citing wartime conditions, gradually eliminated democratic freedoms. In September 1939, martial law was introduced in France. Rallies, meetings, demonstrations and strikes were prohibited. The press and radio were subject to strict censorship. The 40-hour workweek and vacations were abolished. Wages were “frozen” at pre-war levels.

The conclusion of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact served as the reason for the launch of an anti-communist campaign in France. The communists were declared "agents of Moscow and Berlin." At the end of September 1939, the FKP was banned and began to operate underground.

In May 1940, Germany launched a rapid offensive on the Western Front. The Germans launched their first attack on French territory through neutral countries - Belgium and Holland. Then the main forces of Hitler's army attacked in the Sedan area, where the fortifications of the Maginot Line ended. The front was broken through, the Germans went to the rear of the Anglo-French troops and surrounded them near Dunkirk. With great difficulty, the Anglo-French fleet managed to evacuate the British Expeditionary Force without heavy weapons. The main forces of the French army, having lost the support of the British, hastily retreated. On June 10, Italy declared war on France, and German troops were already near Paris. Reynaud's government abandoned the capital and moved south, first to Tours and then to Bordeaux. On June 16, Reynaud's cabinet resigned. The new government was formed by 84-year-old Marshal Philippe Petain, a supporter of ending the war and concluding a truce with Germany. He immediately turned to the Germans with a request to stop hostilities and communicate peace terms.

The Franco-German armistice was signed on June 22, 1940 in Compiegne, the Franco-Italian one on June 25 in Rome.

According to the terms of the armistice, the French army and navy were disarmed and demobilized. France had to pay huge occupation payments of 400 million francs (from November 1942 - 500 million francs) daily. Two-thirds of the country, including Paris, was occupied by Germany. The southern part of France (the so-called free zone) and the colonies were not occupied and were controlled by the Pétain government. It settled in the small resort town of Vichy.

Formally, the Petain government retained the entire navy of the country. Great Britain, which continued the war, fearing that the French fleet might be captured by Germany, decided to disable it. On July 3, 1940, the English fleet attacked a French squadron stationed in the harbor of Mers el-Kebir (Algeria). Most of the ships were sunk or damaged. At the same time, the British captured French ships that found themselves in British ports and blocked the French squadron in the port of Alexandria (Egypt).

On French territory, both in the occupied and unoccupied zones, all political parties and major trade union associations were dissolved. Meetings, demonstrations and strikes were strictly prohibited.

In July 1940, in the unoccupied zone, Marshal Petain published “constitutional acts” that effectively abolished the constitution of the Third Republic. The posts of President of the Republic and Chairman of the Council of Ministers were abolished. Parliament sessions were suspended. All executive and legislative power was transferred to Petain, who was declared the “head of state.” Pierre Laval became the second person in the Vichy government.

The Catholic Church gained great influence in the country. Religious congregations were given back the right to teach in private schools, which had been abolished by the 1905 law on the separation of church and state. State funding for private schools was also restored. Vichy propaganda quickly created for Marshal Petain the aura of the “savior of France,” who saved the French from continuing the war and returned peace and tranquility to the country.

Almost the entire French economy was put at the service of Germany. By the beginning of 1944, 80% of French enterprises carried out German military orders, which were paid for through occupation payments. Germany exported up to three-quarters of French raw materials and from 50 to 100% of the finished products of the main branches of French industry. Since 1942, the export of French workers for forced labor in Germany has become widespread. The occupiers deported about 1 million French to Germany.

Simultaneously with the defeat of France, the history of its resistance to the occupiers began. It is associated, first of all, with the name of the outstanding French military, political and statesman of the 20th century. General Charles de Gaulle.

De Gaulle was born on November 22, 1890 into an aristocratic family and was raised in the spirit of patriotism and Catholicism. After graduating from the Saint-Cyr Higher Military School, he fought on the fields of the First World War and graduated with the rank of captain. During the interwar period, de Gaulle continued his military career. However, already from the mid-20s, his activities went far beyond the scope of military service. He wrote and gave talks a lot. In four of de Gaulle's books - "Discord in the Enemy's Camp" (1924), "On the Edge of the Sword" (1932), "For a Professional Army" (1934) and "France and Its Army" (1938). ) - reflected the author’s own military doctrine and his life credo. He was essentially the first in France to predict the decisive role of tank forces in a future war and presented himself as an adherent of French nationalism and a supporter of a strong executive branch.

De Gaulle was a staunch opponent of the defensive tactics developed by the General Staff of the French Army, which was based on the idea that the Maginot Line was inaccessible. He warned about the destructiveness of such views and called for strengthening the country's defense capability. De Gaulle considered it necessary, first of all, to form additional tank corps in France, equipped with the latest types of vehicles. He sought supporters in military and political circles. In 1934, he even managed to meet Paul Reynaud, but de Gaulle did not achieve effective support for his ideas.

At the beginning of World War II, de Gaulle, who served with the rank of colonel, was appointed commander of tank forces in Alsace. When Germany launched a rapid offensive on the Western Front in 1940, he was ordered to lead a hastily raised armored division. Throughout May, she fought selflessly, suffering heavy losses. The enemy had a huge advantage in tanks, artillery and aviation. For his military services, de Gaulle was promoted to the rank of brigadier general.

In Paris, Paul Reynaud, when reorganizing his cabinet, appointed de Gaulle deputy minister of war. The general immediately arrived in the capital. He stubbornly insisted on continuing the war and tried to convince Reynaud of this. De Gaulle invited the government to move to France's North African possessions and fight, relying on the country's huge colonial empire. However, the chairman of the Council of Ministers chose to transfer power to Marshal Petain. Then de Gaulle committed an unprecedented act. He resolutely refused to submit to the new French authorities, who were heading for surrender, and on June 17, 1940, he flew on a military plane to London.

In the English capital, the rebel general immediately met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and assured him of his firm intention to continue the fight. On June 18, on London radio, de Gaulle made a famous speech addressed to his compatriots. In it, he argued that the situation in France was far from hopeless, because the war that had begun was of a global nature and its outcome would not be decided only by the battle for France. The speech ended with the following words: “I, General de Gaulle, now in London, invite French officers and soldiers who are on British territory or who may be there to establish contact with me. Whatever happens, the flame of the French Resistance must not and will not go out.” So already in June 1940 the flag of French resistance to the enemy was raised.

In London, de Gaulle founded the Free France organization, designed to fight against Nazi Germany on the side of Great Britain. The Vichy government sentenced de Gaulle to death in absentia for “desertion” and “treason.” Nevertheless, both military and civilians of a wide variety of political views and beliefs began to join the Free French. At the end of 1940 there were only 7 thousand people, less than two years later this number increased tenfold.

On August 7, 1940, de Gaulle and Churchill signed an agreement regarding the organization and use of French volunteer forces in England. De Gaulle undertook to form and exercise supreme command of these forces in accordance with the general directives of the British Government. Great Britain did not recognize de Gaulle's rights to exercise state power and considered the “free French” only as volunteers in their service. However, it provided de Gaulle with regular financial support and gave him the opportunity to create a civilian body in addition to the military one. The English BBC radio station was also placed at de Gaulle's disposal. Through it, Free France carried out propaganda broadcasts to France.

First of all, de Gaulle directed his efforts towards taking over the French colonies, mainly African ones. With the help of his supporters, he began active propaganda there in favor of continuing the war and joining the Free French. The North African administration categorically rejected such proposals and remained loyal to the Vichy government. The colonies of French Equatorial Africa behaved differently. Already in August 1940, Chad joined de Gaulle. After some time, Congo, Ubangi-Shari, Gabon, and Cameroon went over to the general’s side. Several small French possessions in the Pacific declared its recognition. This was the first big success. True, in September 1940 the Gaullists suffered a serious defeat. The expedition of the Anglo-French squadron, which aimed to capture the most important port of French West Africa - Dakar, ended in failure. The city garrison remained on the Vichy side. Yet Free France now had its own territorial base on the African continent. This allowed de Gaulle to begin creating his “state apparatus” and decisively disassociate himself from the Vichy government.

On October 27, 1940, de Gaulle issued a Manifesto regarding the leadership of the French during the war. In it, he condemned the activities of Petain’s cabinet, spoke about the illegality of its existence and called the collaborationists “accidental leaders” who submitted to the enemy. De Gaulle declared that on behalf of France he would exercise power for the sole purpose of protecting the country from the enemy.

At the very end of 1940, the Free French Office of Political Affairs was created. Its work was supervised by de Gaulle himself. He also defined the tasks of the Directorate: “Create and use information services that collect materials about the political situation in France and the Empire. Organize and support the Free France movement in France and the Empire and try to extend its activities to old and new political, social, religious, economic, professional and intellectual organizations and convince them of the need at the moment to subordinate all personal interests to one - the national one.” . The Directorate consisted of the General Staff and the Information Service. Three bureaus were subordinate to them. The first defined specific tasks. The second was to carry them out on the territory of France and the colonial empire. It subsequently grew into the famous Central Bureau of Awareness and Action (CBRA). The third was engaged in establishing contacts with foreign countries. Its representatives were sent by de Gaulle to various regions of the world in order to achieve recognition of the Free French by foreign governments.

In September 1941, de Gaulle issued the Free French Ordinance. He established the National Committee, which temporarily exercised the functions of state power. It was called upon to exist until “until a representation of the French people is created, capable of expressing the will of the nation, regardless of the enemy.” The National Committee included commissioners appointed by its chairman, General de Gaulle: Rene Pleven (coordinating the activities of the committee), Maurice Dejean (foreign affairs), Rene Cassin (justice and public education), General Legentille (military affairs), Admiral Muselier ( military and merchant marine), General Valen (aviation affairs), André Dietelme (internal affairs). The commissioners headed the national commissariats. So, within the framework of Free France, some semblance of a government was created.

The cooperation of Free France (from July 1942 - Fighting France) with its allies in the anti-Hitler coalition was not easy at first. First of all, this concerned the development of de Gaulle’s relations with the British government, before which he defended French national interests. The head of the Free French sought to prevent the spread of English influence in the French colonial possessions.

In the summer of 1941, as a result of a joint military operation between the British and the “free French”, the Vichy regime in the French colonies in the Middle East - Syria and Lebanon - was overthrown. In the spring of 1942, Great Britain captured the island of Madagascar and eliminated the Vichy administration there. The British wanted to establish their power in these French possessions. De Gaulle categorically opposed this and, at the cost of enormous efforts and difficult diplomatic negotiations, annexed Syria, Lebanon and Madagascar to the Free French movement.

Immediately after the start of the Great Patriotic War, de Gaulle, on behalf of the Free French, initiated cooperation with the USSR, which had previously maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy.

The events of June 22, 1941 found the general in Africa. On June 30, the Vichy government announced the severance of diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. The plenipotentiary representative of the USSR under Vichy, A.E. Bogomolov, was immediately recalled from France. But already on July 1, the Ambassador of the Soviet Union to Great Britain I.M. Maisky telegraphed from London to Moscow that even before the break with Vichy, he was privately visited by de Gaulle’s representative Cassin, “who on behalf of the general conveyed sympathies and best wishes to the USSR.” and at the same time “raised the question of establishing some kind of relationship between the Soviet government and de Gaulle’s forces.” In August, Cassin and Dejean again raised the same question with I.M. Maisky. And on September 26, 1941, the USSR Ambassador to Great Britain conveyed an official written response to de Gaulle: “On behalf of my government, I have the honor to notify you that it recognizes you as the leader of all free Frenchmen, wherever they are, who have rallied around you , supporting the Allied cause."

Both sides decided to exchange official representatives. At the beginning of November 1941, A.E. Bogomolov was sent to Great Britain with the rank of Ambassador Extraordinary Plenipotentiary of the USSR to the Allied governments in London. The Soviet government entrusted him with the functions of maintaining contact with the Free France. Roger Garro, Raymond Schmittlen and the military representative General Ernest Petit, appointed by de Gaulle, left for Moscow.

The United States maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy before entering World War II. However, the Americans were interested in using the French island colonies in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, controlled by the Free French, as their military naval and air bases.

After the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies in December 1941, de Gaulle approached the United States with a proposal to establish diplomatic relations. Official Washington did not give the head of Free France a positive answer for a long time. It was not until March 1942 that the United States recognized the authority of De Gaulle's National Committee in the Pacific Islands. In July 1942, the US government published a communiqué recognizing the organization headed by de Gaulle.

From the second half of 1940, the first Resistance groups began to form in the territory of occupied France and in the so-called free zone.

The most active role in the process of countering the occupiers was played by the French Communist Party. The Manifesto published by her on July 10, illegally distributed throughout the country, defined the main goals of the struggle in the current conditions - the national and social liberation and revival of France, the conquest of freedom and independence by the French people. The communists launched extensive activities to publish the underground newspaper L'Humanité, brochures and leaflets. They organized acts of sabotage and assassination attempts on the occupiers.

In 1941, in some cities of the country (Paris, Lyon, Marseille, Clermont-Ferrand, etc.), in addition to communist groups, bourgeois-patriotic Resistance groups also operated. They conducted anti-fascist propaganda, published illegal leaflets and newspapers, and collected intelligence data.

By the end of 1941, the Resistance movement in France had become an impressive effective force. Almost all sectors of French society were represented.

General de Gaulle set himself the task of uniting the scattered forces of the Resistance around the Free French. In this regard, he made a number of speeches, where he outlined the program of the organization he headed. In one of them, he stated that to the original motto of the Free France, “Honor and Homeland,” another “Freedom” is now added. Equality. Brotherhood". “We want to remain faithful,” de Gaulle emphasized, “to the democratic principles that the genius of our nation gave to our ancestors and which are the stakes in this life-and-death war.” In order to practically begin to unite the various Resistance groups under his leadership, the general began sending special “political missions” to France. The main one was entrusted to the outstanding figure of the French Resistance, Jean Moulin.

In October 1941, Moulin, on his own initiative, came to de Gaulle in London. He presented him with a report on the situation in France. Moulin considered immediate and comprehensive assistance from the British government and General de Gaulle to be the decisive condition for all further successes of the Resistance. He asked to provide political and moral support to the Resistance organizations, to provide them with means of communication and financial assistance. Moulin made a strong impression on the head of the Free French. Thanks to him, for the first time he received reliable information about the movement unfolding in his homeland. De Gaulle decided to entrust this man with a responsible mission - to unite all Resistance groups and ensure their submission to his leadership. In January 1942, Moulin parachuted into southern France.

Beginning in 1942, the London organization’s connections with the Resistance movement began to become systematic. A Commissariat for Information was created under the London National Committee, headed by Jacques Soustelle. His functions were mainly to supply information about the activities of Free France to various radio stations around the world, as well as underground publications published in France.

At first, not all Resistance figures advocated subordination to the Free French. However, gradually many began to lean towards this. The leaders of various Resistance groups sought to get to London to personally meet de Gaulle. During 1942, he was visited by representatives of political parties that had gone underground, socialists Pierre Brossolet, Felix Gouin, Christian Pinault, Andre Philip, and radical Pierre Mendes-France.

Pinault's visit to the English capital in the spring of 1942 was of great importance. In the draft Manifesto he compiled, the head of Free France was called the representative of the French people. De Gaulle personally revised the Manifesto, and Pinault took it to France. In June 1942 it was published in the underground press. The Manifesto condemned the regime of the Third Republic, which led the country to disaster, and the Vichy regime, which collaborated with the fascists. The restoration of the integrity of the territory of France and its empire at the end of the war was declared. “As soon as the French are freed from enemy oppression,” the document emphasized, “all their internal freedoms must be returned to them. After the enemy has been driven from our territory, all men and women will elect a National Assembly, which will itself decide the fate of our country.” Essentially, the text testified to the recognition by the head of Free France of basic democratic principles. It promised to convene a plenipotentiary parliament after liberation and restore democratic freedoms in the country.

The appearance of the Manifesto had the most positive impact on the relations of the Free French with the internal Resistance. Non-communist organizations now joined de Gaulle one after another. The general also sought to enlist the support of the communists, realizing that it was the PCF that was the effective force of the Resistance. At de Gaulle's insistence, the Communists sent their representative Fernand Grenier to him in London at the end of 1942. The general did not share many of the views of the communists, but he cooperated with them, realizing that at the moment it was absolutely necessary.

After the defeat of the Nazi troops at Stalingrad, a radical turning point in the course of the war was outlined. The defeat of Germany and its allies on the Eastern Front created favorable conditions for the opening of a second front in Western Europe, which England and the United States promised to do back in 1942. However, instead they decided to land troops in Algeria and Morocco, where Vichy troops were stationed. The Americans believed that it was necessary to act in harmony with the Vichy authorities, and sought to find some high-ranking French military man who could carry the Vichy administration and army with him. The commander of the French fleet, Admiral Darlan, was quite suitable for such a role. At the beginning of November he was in Algeria. The Americans also worried about a backup option - another French military man, Army General Giraud, was at the ready. The allies intended one or the other to replace de Gaulle, who, in their opinion, was too intractable and ambitious. He was not even warned about the impending military operation.

On November 8, 1942, large Anglo-American forces landed on the territory of Algeria and Morocco. The Vichy troops, after a short resistance, laid down their arms. In response, Germany occupied the southern, “free” zone of France. The American command proclaimed Admiral Darlan High Commissioner of North Africa. However, on December 24 he was shot dead. A few days later, General Giraud was appointed to replace Darlan, receiving the title of “civil and military commander in chief.” His entourage consisted mainly of Vichyists who went over to the US side. The general himself was clearly sympathetic to the Vichy regime. He saw his main task only in winning the war.

Giraud had no objection to uniting with Fighting France, but, commanding a large army and far outranking Brigadier General de Gaulle, he took it for granted that the comparatively weak forces of Fighting France should come under his command. Giraud took a clearly pro-American position, acted on the orders of US President Franklin Roosevelt and was supported by him in his intentions regarding the London organization. In January 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill held a conference in Casablanca (Morocco). At it, in particular, the “French question” was considered. The American President and the British Prime Minister decided to unite the groups led by de Gaulle and Giraud, but encountered serious difficulties. Both generals met in Casablanca, but did not come to an agreement, since de Gaulle categorically refused to allow the National Committee he headed to be in a subordinate position. Thus, Giraud continued to be the sole head of administration in North Africa, and de Gaulle had to return to London.

As a result, in the spring of 1943, the head of “Fighting France” again began the fight for recognition. He decided that he could count on success only by enlisting the support of his most important ally in the anti-Hitler coalition - the USSR - and the Resistance movement.

De Gaulle sought to visit the Soviet Union and see J.V. Stalin. Moscow has so far refused to accept the head of Fighting France. However, the USSR government made it clear that it preferred de Gaulle over Giraud.

De Gaulle's contacts with representatives of various groups and political trends of the Resistance were constantly expanding. In the first half of 1943, socialists Vincent Auriol and Andre Le Trocoeur, radical Henri Kay, and leader of the Republican Federation Louis Marin visited the general in London.

A new important political mission was entrusted by de Gaulle to Moulins. He was supposed to unite all Resistance organizations and parties that opposed the occupiers and Vichy into a single National Council of the Resistance. He managed to do this in May 1943. The National Council of the Resistance included representatives of 16 main organizations that fought for the liberation of France. Among them were the Communist and Socialist parties, the General Confederation of Labor, Christian trade unions, and the main bourgeois-patriotic groups. The first chairman of the council was Jean Moulin. After his arrest and tragic death in the dungeons of the Gestapo, this post was taken by the head of the Combat Resistance group, Georges Bidault.

Having secured support from the internal Resistance, de Gaulle began negotiations with Giraud about the need for their meeting and unification. The governments of the USA and England advised Giraud to agree, and he invited de Gaulle to Algeria. Just before leaving London, the head of Fighting France received a telegram from Moulin, which stated that preparations for the creation of the National Council of the Resistance had been completed. It also stated that “the French people will never allow General de Gaulle to be subordinated to General Giraud and demands the rapid establishment of a Provisional Government in Algeria under the chairmanship of General de Gaulle.” Thus, appearing before public opinion as a national leader enjoying the support of the Resistance movement, the general came to Algeria at the end of May 1943.

De Gaulle and his supporters initiated the creation of a government body headed by two chairmen. The leaders of the USA and England, as well as General Giraud, agreed to this proposal. As a result, on June 3, 1943, in Algeria, de Gaulle and Giraud signed an order establishing the French Committee for National Liberation (FCNL). The committee included de Gaulle and Giraud as chairmen, as well as 5 other people - Generals Catroux and Georges, Andre Philippe, Rene Massigli and Jean Monnet.

The FCNO saw its tasks as continuing to fight together with its allies “until the complete liberation of French territories and the territories of the allies, until victory over all hostile powers.” The FCNO pledged to “restore all French liberties, the laws of the republic and the republican regime.”

On June 7, the commissariats (ministries) of the FKNO were formed, and its composition was expanded. At the suggestion of de Gaulle, it included Rene Pleven, Henri Bonnet, André Diethelme and Adrien Tixier, and at the suggestion of Giraud - Maurice Couve de Murville and Jules Abadie. Now there were 14 committee members, and 9 of them belonged to “Fighting France”. Monnet and Couve de Murville also declared their support for de Gaulle. Thus, the balance of power was in his favor. During 1943, de Gaulle gradually removed Giraud from affairs and became the sole chairman of the FKNO.

Under the leadership of de Gaulle, the FCNO took a number of measures to eliminate the Vichy order in French North Africa. This increased his prestige in the eyes of the Resistance. This circumstance predetermined the issue of its diplomatic recognition. At the end of August 1943, applications for recognition of the FKNO were published simultaneously by the USSR, England, the USA, and over the following weeks by 19 more states.

At the initiative of de Gaulle, in September 1943, the FCNO adopted an ordinance establishing a representative body similar to parliament in the Algerian capital - the Provisional Consultative Assembly. It was formed of 94 people, representatives of Resistance organizations, former parliamentarians and delegates from the population of the liberated territories.

In early November, the FKNO decided to include representatives of the main political movements and organizations of the Resistance into its composition. It now included from the Resistance organizations Emmanuel d'Astier, François de Manton, Henri Frenet, Rene Captain, Andre Philip, Andre Le Trocoeur, Pierre Mendes-France, Henri Kay and others. The question of the inclusion of communists in the FCNO was discussed. But he was decided only after some time. Representatives of the PCF, François Billoux and Fernand Grenier, became members of the committee only in mid-1944.

At the first meeting of the assembly in early November 1943, de Gaulle made a speech to the assembled deputies. In it, he announced the reform program that he intended to implement after the liberation of France.

In January 1944, de Gaulle signed an order creating the institution of regional commissars of the republic, which authorized the division of the entire territory of France into regional commissariats headed by commissioners, corresponding to the previously existing regional prefectures. “The regional commissioners,” the ordinance stated, “are entrusted with taking all necessary measures, with the exception of the functions within the competence of the military authorities, to ensure the security of the French and allied armies, to organize the administration of the territory, to restore republican legality, as well as to take care of meeting the needs of population." The commissars were supposed to replace the Vichy prefects throughout the country. It was on them that de Gaulle hoped to rely on in the provinces.

The chairman of the FKNO was finally recognized by the National Council of the Resistance, which published its program in March. In it, along with an indication of the need for fundamental democratic changes in France, the demand for the creation of a Provisional Government of the Republic headed by de Gaulle was put forward.

The general, while in Algeria, also outlined his political program of action. Speaking to members of the Assembly in March 1944, he declared that “the essence and form of the French society of tomorrow ... can only be determined by a representative body of the nation, elected on the basis of general, direct and free elections ... As for the government, which national representation entrusts the functions of the executive power, then in order to carry them out it must have the strength and stability, as required by the authority of the state and the role of France in international affairs.” Four months later, on the eve of the liberation of the country, de Gaulle even more specifically defined the immediate tasks for France. “With regard to the political system,” he emphasized, “we have made our choice. We chose democracy and a republic. Letting the people speak, in other words, laying the foundations of freedom, order and respect for rights in the shortest possible time and thereby creating the conditions for general elections that will lead to the convening of a National Constituent Assembly, is the goal to which we strive.”

In June 1944, groups of Anglo-American troops under the command of General Eisenhower landed in northern France, and in August - in the south. De Gaulle obtained the consent of England and the United States to participate in the liberation of the country by FCNO troops and was given the opportunity to introduce their representatives into the inter-allied command. They were the French generals Koenig, Cochet and Leclerc. Following the Anglo-American troops, military units of the FKNO entered French soil. The French Committee for National Liberation itself was renamed the Provisional Government of the French Republic in August 1944. De Gaulle became its chairman.

The news of the landing of the Allied armies served as a signal for the national uprising advocated by the French Communist Party. General de Gaulle also supported this idea, who feared that otherwise the Allies would want to control liberated France with the help of their military administration. The national uprising quickly spread to 40 of the country's 90 departments.

Under the leadership of the communists, preparations were also being made for an armed uprising in Paris. This fact excited de Gaulle, who believed that the PCF could “stand at the head of the uprising like a kind of Commune.” De Gaulle's representatives operating in France also feared this. They concentrated combat groups of bourgeois-patriotic organizations in Paris and agreed on their support by the Parisian police and gendarmerie, who had already agreed to go over to the side of the Provisional Government. De Gaulle's supporters wanted Allied troops to approach Paris as quickly as possible and prevent an uprising. However, it began before their appearance in the French capital.

On August 24, when Leclerc's tanks entered Paris, the main part of it had already been liberated by French patriots. The next day, the commander of the troops of the Paris region, the communist Rolle-Tanguy, and General Leclerc accepted the official surrender of the German garrison. On the same day, de Gaulle arrived in Paris.

From the station, the head of the Provisional Government went to the War Ministry to meet with the official authorities of the city and from there give the order to restore public order and supplies in the capital. After this, he went to the town hall, where representatives of the National Council of the Resistance and the Paris Liberation Committee were waiting for him.

On August 26, Paris rejoiced. A grandiose demonstration took place on the Champs Elysees to mark the liberation. A crowd of thousands filled the entire avenue. De Gaulle, accompanied by General Leclerc, drove up to the Arc de Triomphe, where, in the presence of members of the government and the National Council of the Resistance, he lit a fire at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, extinguished more than four years ago by the occupiers.

During the autumn, almost the entire territory of France was liberated. In October 1944, the Provisional Government headed by de Gaulle was recognized by the USSR, England and the USA. After this, de Gaulle directed his efforts to strengthening France's position on the world stage.

In November-December 1944, a French government delegation led by de Gaulle paid an official visit to the Soviet Union. Negotiations between the Chairman of the Provisional Government of France and J.V. Stalin ended with the signing of the Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance between the two countries.

At the conference of the three victorious countries in Yalta, held in February 1945, it was decided to allocate a zone of occupation in Germany for France and include it in the Allied Control Council along with the USSR, the USA and England. France also received one of the five seats as permanent members of the Security Council of the newly created United Nations. At the Berlin (Potsdam) Conference (July-August 1945), France, along with the three great powers, was introduced into the Council of Foreign Ministers, which was supposed to solve the problems of a peaceful settlement.

This year, France celebrated a tragic anniversary - the 75th anniversary of the shameful surrender to Nazi Germany.

As a result of the offensive that began on May 10, 1940, the Germans defeated the French army in just a month. On June 14, German troops entered Paris without a fight, which had been declared an open city by the French government to avoid its destruction. On June 22, 1940, France capitulated on humiliating terms: 60% of its territory was occupied, part of the land was annexed by Germany and Italy, the rest of the territory was controlled by a puppet government. The French had to maintain the occupying German troops, the army and navy were disarmed, the French prisoners were supposed to be in camps (out of one and a half million French prisoners of war, about a million remained in camps until 1945).

I dedicate this photo collection to this tragic event for France.

1. Residents of Paris look at the German army entering the city. 06/14/1940

2. German soldiers on the armor of an abandoned French light tank Hotchkiss H35.

3. Captured wounded French officer from a hospital captured by German troops in Juvisy-sur-Orge.

4. Captured wounded French soldiers from a hospital captured by German troops in Juvisy-sur-Orge.

5. A column of French prisoners of war on a march along a country road.

6. A group of French prisoners of war follows a city street to a meeting place. In the photo: on the left are French sailors, on the right are Senegalese riflemen of the French colonial troops.

7. Captured French soldiers, among them several blacks from French colonial units.

8. German soldiers next to a French light tank Renault R35 abandoned on the road near Lahn.

9. German soldiers and an officer pose with a downed British Spitfire fighter (Supermarine Spitfire Mk.I) on the beach near Dunkirk.

10. Two French Renault R35 light tanks abandoned on the street of a populated area.

11. A column of French prisoners of war passes through the village.

12. Captured French soldiers walk along the line of German soldiers. The picture shows soldiers from various units defending the Maginot Line.

13. Captured soldiers of various units of the French colonial troops.

14. Captured French soldiers at the assembly point in Saint-Florentin.

15. Captured French soldiers guarded by a German sentry.

16. A column of French North African prisoners of war heading to the gathering place.

17. French artillery equipment abandoned on the side of the road near Brunhamel.

18. Helmets and equipment abandoned by French soldiers during the surrender on a city street.

19. A column of French prisoners of war on the road in the Moy-de-Aisne area.

20. A group of captured French soldiers in Amiens.

21. French soldiers with their hands raised surrender to German troops.

22. German mountain rangers near the captured 155-mm French cannon Canon de 155 mm L Mle 1877 de Bange, with a barrel made in 1916 (sometimes called Canon de 155 mm L Mle 1877/1916), captured near the Marne.

23. French prisoners of war on vacation in the Dieppe area. Judging by the characteristic elements of the uniform in the picture, the servicemen are from a cavalry unit.

24. German soldiers on the Place de la Concorde in Paris.

25. A group of captured Moroccan soldiers of French colonial troops in Amiens.

26. Line up of captured Senegalese riflemen of French colonial troops in Amiens.

27. French prisoners of war at the assembly point. Among the prisoners are members of the French North African colonial forces, presumably Senegalese.

28. Wounded French soldiers at the infirmary in the city of Rocroi.

29. French prisoners of war drink water during a halt.

30. Vehicles abandoned by the Allies on the beach near Dunkirk.

31. The commander of the 7th Panzer Division of the Wehrmacht, Major General Erwin Rommel, and his staff officers are crossing the river by boat.

32. A column of French prisoners of war is walking along the side of the road, escorted by German soldiers. Presumably the area around Rocroi.

33. A group of French prisoners of war on the march along the road. In the background is a flying German transport plane Ju-52.

34. German artillerymen transport a 37-mm PaK 35/36 anti-tank gun by boat across the Meuse.

35. A German military band marches along the streets of occupied Paris.

36. French prisoners of war follow the road to the gathering place. In the center of the photo are three prisoners of war from the Zouave regiment.

37. French prisoner of war in the field.

38. French Navy Loire-Nieuport LN-411 dive bomber made an emergency landing.

39. A German soldier near the crashed French fighter Bloch MB.152.

40. A group of French prisoners of war in formation.

41. German soldiers pose next to a broken French 25 mm Hotchkiss anti-tank gun (Canon de 25 mm antichar Modele 1934 Hotchkiss).

42. Black prisoners of French colonial units in formation.

43. Two German soldiers change position during a battle in a destroyed French town.

44. A German soldier examines a captured saber captured in France.

45. Captured French pilots talk with German soldiers near the tent.

46. ​​German soldiers next to a captured French 25-mm anti-tank gun of the 1934 model of the Hotchkiss system (Canon de 25-mm antichar Modele 1934 Hotchkiss).

47. A captured French infantryman (possibly an officer) shows something on the map to German officers. To the right and left in helmets are captured French tank crews.

48. Column of French prisoners at the Palace of Versailles in Paris.

49. Abandoned French light tanks AMR-35.

50. An unknown prisoner of war soldier of one of the French North African (Moroccan) Spagi regiments on the march as part of a column of prisoners.

51. A column of French prisoners of war in Rocroi is moving towards the gathering place. There is a sign on the road showing the direction to Fume.

52. Line up of prisoners of war from the French North African spagi regiments in the joint camp in Etampes during assignment to work.

53. An unknown prisoner of war soldier from the French 9th Algerian Regiment of the 2nd Spagi Brigade. The remnants of the regiment surrendered on June 18, 1940 near the city of Besançon.

54. A column of French prisoners passes by a German convoy in the Avranches area.

55. German soldiers and French prisoners from colonial units in the camp at the Proto barracks in Cherbourg.

56. A German soldier distributes cigarettes to prisoners of French colonial units.

57. Column of the 6th German Panzer Division in a field in France. In the foreground is a Czech-made light tank LT vz.35 (German designation Pz.Kpfw. 35(t)), in the background are German Pz.Kpfw tanks. IV early modifications.

58. Black French prisoners of colonial units wash clothes in the Frontstalag 155 camp in the village of Lonvic, 5 km from the city of Dijon.

59. Black French prisoners in the Frontstalag 155 camp in the village of Lonvic, 5 km from the city of Dijon.

60. Two German soldiers walk along the street of the French village of Saint-Simon past dead cows.

61. Five French prisoners (four are black) stand by the railway.

62. Killed French soldier on the edge of a field in Normandy.

63. A group of French prisoners of war is walking along the road.

64. Representatives of France are sent to the “carriage of Marshal Foch” to negotiate an armistice with representatives of Germany. In this very place, in this very carriage, on November 11, 1918, the Compiegne Truce, humiliating for Germany, was signed, which recorded the shameful defeat of Germany in the First World War. The signing of the new Compiegne Truce in the same place, according to Hitler, was supposed to symbolize the historical revenge of Germany. In order to roll the carriage out into the clearing, the Germans destroyed the wall of the museum where it was stored and laid rails to the historical site.

65. A group of Wehrmacht soldiers take cover from fire in the French town of Sedan.

66. German soldiers smoke next to horses. From the photo album of a private driver of a Wehrmacht infantry division.

67. German soldiers settled down to rest next to their bicycles. From the photo album of a private driver of a Wehrmacht infantry division.

68. Artillery pieces captured by German troops during the French campaign. In the foreground are French 155-mm cannons of the 1917 model from Schneider. These guns in the Wehrmacht received the designation 15.5 cm gun K.416(f). In the background are French heavy 220-mm Schneider model 1917 cannons, barrels and carriages, which were transported separately. These guns were designated by the Wehrmacht as the 22 cm gun K.232(f).

69. A German soldier demonstrates trophies - captured weapons and ammunition of French troops. Photo from the photo album of a private driver of a Wehrmacht infantry division.

70. A team of donkeys as part of a German convoy. From the photo album of a private driver of a Wehrmacht infantry division.

71. German sappers are restoring a destroyed bridge. Photo from the personal album of a Wehrmacht engineer battalion soldier.

72. Two German officers and a non-commissioned officer look at the map.

73. German soldiers at the entrance to the military cemetery in honor of those killed in the First World War near Verdun in the French town of Duamont.

74. Wehrmacht soldiers “wash” awards received for the campaign in France. Photo from the personal album of a Wehrmacht Oberfeldwebel.

75. A French officer talks to a German officer during the surrender of the Nantes garrison.

76. German nurses at the monument to Marshal of France Ferdinand Foch in the Compiegne Forest. Very close to this place, the surrender of France in the war with Germany was signed (and in 1918, the surrender of Germany in the First World War).

77. A French bomber Amiot 143 captured by German troops on a field in the commune of Sombernon in Burgundy. The aircraft is from the 2nd Air Group of the 38th Bombardment Squadron. The 38th Bombardment Squadron was stationed near the city of Auxerre in Burgundy. The plane returning from a mission made an emergency landing on a field due to unfavorable weather conditions and was captured by German troops. Next to the plane are motorcycles of one of the units of the German troops.

78. Two French prisoners stand against the wall of the house.

79. Column of French prisoners on a village street.

80. Five non-commissioned officers of the 173rd Wehrmacht artillery regiment on vacation during the French campaign.

81. The French battleship Bretagne (commissioned in 1915) was sunk at Mers-El-Kebir during Operation Catapult by the British fleet. Operation Catapult was intended to capture and destroy French ships in English and colonial ports to prevent the ships from falling under German control after the surrender of France. The battleship "Brittany" was hit by the third salvo, hitting the base of the tripod mast, after which a strong fire began. The commander tried to run the ship aground, but the battleship was hit by another salvo from the English battleship Hood. Two minutes later, the old battleship began to capsize and suddenly exploded, taking the lives of 977 crew members. The photo was probably taken from the French seaplane Commandant Test, which miraculously avoided being hit during the entire battle, and subsequently took on board the surviving crew members of the deceased battleship.

82. A column of French captured colonial units on the march on the railway bridge.

83. A soldier of the 73rd Wehrmacht Infantry Division poses with a French prisoner.

84. Soldiers of the 73rd Wehrmacht Infantry Regiment interrogate a French prisoner of war.

85. Soldiers of the 73rd Wehrmacht Infantry Regiment interrogate a French prisoner of war.

86. The body of a British artilleryman near a 40 mm 2 pounder QF 2 pounder anti-tank gun.

87. French prisoners are standing near a tree.

88. Soldiers of the Royal Highlanders "Black Watch" buy dishes from a French woman. 10/16/1939

89. A column of French prisoners passes by a German convoy in the Avranches area.

90. German soldiers with horses on Stanislaus Square in the French city of Nancy at the monument to the Polish king Stanislaw Leszczynski.

91. German cars on Place Stanislas in the French city of Nancy. In the center of the square is a monument to the Polish king Stanislaw Leszczynski.

93. German 150-mm self-propelled howitzer "Bison" (15 cm sIG 33 Sfl. auf Pz.KpfW.I Ausf B ohne Aufbau; Sturmpanzer I) against the background of the explosion of its shell on the second floor of a corner building during fighting in France.

94. British soldiers captured by the Germans in Dunkirk, in the city square.

95. Oil storage tank fire in Dunkirk. The plane on the right is a Lockheed Hudson, owned by the British Royal Air Force.

96. A German soldier killed in battle during the French campaign of the Wehrmacht. On the parapet of the trench there is a German cap and parts of a belt.

97. Column of captured French soldiers. Among them are many Africans from French colonial units.

98. A French woman greets Canadian soldiers who landed in France 4 days before the surrender of French troops.

99. French soldiers take pictures on the street of the town during the “Phantom War”. 12/18/1939

100. German women, children and soldiers of the cordon in the Nazi salute at a mass event in Germany dedicated to the victory of German troops in France.

101. The sinking of the British troop transport RMS Lancastria on June 17, 1940. In the water and on the sides of the tilted ship, many people are visible trying to escape. On June 17, 1940, the English troop transport Lancastria (before the war, a passenger liner that cruised the Mediterranean Sea) with a displacement of 16,243 tons was sunk by German Ju-88 bombers off the coast of France. The transport evacuated English military units from France to Great Britain. There were also a large number of civilians on board, including women and children. The ship was sunk in a twenty-minute attack shortly after leaving the French port of Saint-Nazaire. As a result, about four thousand passengers died - drowned, died from bomb explosions, shelling, and suffocated in oil-contaminated water. 2,477 people were saved.

102. Bombing by British aircraft of a French airfield in the city of Abbeville, captured by the Germans. The picture shows falling British 500-pound (227 kg) aerial bombs.

103. The crew of the French tank Char B1 No. 350 “Fleurie” in front of their vehicle.

104. German dive bombers Junkers Ju 87 B-2 from the Immelmann squadron (StG2 Immelmann) in the skies of France.

105. Killed black French soldier.

106. During Operation Dynamo (the evacuation of Anglo-French troops from Dunkirk to England), the destroyer Bourrasque hit a mine on May 29, 1940 in the area of ​​Ostend (Belgium) and sank the next day.

107. Soldiers of the SS division “Totenkopf” in battle in France.

108. Motorcyclist of the SS division “Totenkopf” in France.

109. Soldiers of the SS division “Totenkopf” regulate traffic on the streets of a French city, accelerating the advance of lagging troops.

110. Burning and sunken French warships photographed by an RAF aircraft the day after they were scuttled by their crews at the quay walls at Toulon.

On the eve of World War II, the French army was considered one of the most powerful in the world. But in a direct clash with Germany in May 1940, the French only had enough resistance for a few weeks.

Useless superiority

By the beginning of World War II, France had the 3rd largest army in the world in terms of the number of tanks and aircraft, second only to the USSR and Germany, as well as the 4th largest navy after Britain, the USA and Japan. The total number of French troops numbered more than 2 million people.
The superiority of the French army in manpower and equipment over the Wehrmacht forces on the Western Front was undeniable. For example, the French Air Force included about 3,300 aircraft, half of which were the latest combat vehicles. The Luftwaffe could only count on 1,186 aircraft.
With the arrival of reinforcements from the British Isles - an expeditionary force of 9 divisions, as well as air units, including 1,500 combat vehicles - the advantage over the German troops became more than obvious. However, in a matter of months, not a trace remained of the former superiority of the allied forces - the well-trained and tactically superior Wehrmacht army ultimately forced France to capitulate.

The line that didn't protect

The French command assumed that the German army would act as during the First World War - that is, it would launch an attack on France from the northeast from Belgium. The entire load in this case was supposed to fall on the defensive redoubts of the Maginot Line, which France began building in 1929 and improved until 1940.

The French spent a fabulous sum on the construction of the Maginot Line, which stretches 400 km - about 3 billion francs (or 1 billion dollars). Massive fortifications included multi-level underground forts with living quarters, ventilation units and elevators, electrical and telephone exchanges, hospitals and narrow-gauge railways. The gun casemates were supposed to be protected from aerial bombs by a 4-meter thick concrete wall.

The personnel of the French troops on the Maginot Line reached 300 thousand people.
According to military historians, the Maginot Line, in principle, coped with its task. There were no breakthroughs by German troops in its most fortified areas. But the German Army Group B, having bypassed the line of fortifications from the north, threw its main forces into its new sections, which were built in swampy areas, and where the construction of underground structures was difficult. There, the French were unable to hold back the onslaught of German troops.

Surrender in 10 minutes

On June 17, 1940, the first meeting of the collaborationist government of France, headed by Marshal Henri Petain, took place. It lasted only 10 minutes. During this time, the ministers unanimously voted for the decision to appeal to the German command and ask them to end the war on French territory.

For these purposes, the services of an intermediary were used. The new Minister of Foreign Affairs, P. Baudouin, through the Spanish Ambassador Lequeric, conveyed a note in which the French government asked Spain to appeal to the German leadership with a request to end hostilities in France, and also to find out the terms of the truce. At the same time, a proposal for a truce was sent to Italy through the papal nuncio. On the same day, Pétain addressed the people and the army on the radio, calling on them to “stop the fight.”

Last stronghold

When signing the armistice agreement (act of surrender) between Germany and France, Hitler looked warily at the latter's vast colonies, many of which were ready to continue resistance. This explains some of the relaxations in the treaty, in particular, the preservation of part of the French navy to maintain “order” in its colonies.

England was also vitally interested in the fate of the French colonies, since the threat of their capture by German forces was highly assessed. Churchill hatched plans to create an émigré government of France, which would give actual control over the French overseas possessions to Britain.
General Charles de Gaulle, who created a government in opposition to the Vichy regime, directed all his efforts towards taking possession of the colonies.

However, the North African administration rejected the offer to join the Free French. A completely different mood reigned in the colonies of Equatorial Africa - already in August 1940, Chad, Gabon and Cameroon joined de Gaulle, which created the conditions for the general to form a state apparatus.

Mussolini's Fury

Realizing that France's defeat by Germany was inevitable, Mussolini declared war on her on June 10, 1940. The Italian Army Group "West" of Prince Umberto of Savoy, with a force of over 300 thousand people, supported by 3 thousand guns, began an offensive in the Alps region. However, the opposing army of General Oldry successfully repelled these attacks.

By June 20, the offensive of the Italian divisions became more fierce, but they only managed to advance slightly in the Menton area. Mussolini was furious - his plans to seize a large piece of its territory by the time France surrendered failed. The Italian dictator had already begun preparing an airborne assault, but did not receive approval for this operation from the German command.
On June 22, an armistice was signed between France and Germany, and two days later France and Italy entered into the same agreement. Thus, with a “victorious embarrassment,” Italy entered the Second World War.

Victims

During the active phase of the war, which lasted from May 10 to June 21, 1940, the French army lost about 300 thousand people killed and wounded. One and a half million were captured. The French tank corps and air force were partially destroyed, the other part went to the German armed forces. At the same time, Britain liquidates the French fleet to avoid it falling into the hands of the Wehrmacht.

Despite the fact that the capture of France occurred in a short time, its armed forces gave a worthy rebuff to German and Italian troops. During the month and a half of the war, the Wehrmacht lost more than 45 thousand people killed and missing, and about 11 thousand were wounded.
The French victims of German aggression could not have been in vain if the French government had accepted a number of concessions put forward by Britain in exchange for the entry of the royal armed forces into the war. But France chose to capitulate.

Paris – a place of convergence

According to the armistice agreement, Germany occupied only the western coast of France and the northern regions of the country, where Paris was located. The capital was a kind of place for “French-German” rapprochement. German soldiers and Parisians lived peacefully here: they went to the movies together, visited museums, or just sat in a cafe. After the occupation, theaters also revived - their box office revenue tripled compared to the pre-war years.

Paris very quickly became the cultural center of occupied Europe. France lived as before, as if there had been no months of desperate resistance and unfulfilled hopes. German propaganda managed to convince many French that capitulation was not a shame for the country, but the road to a “bright future” for a renewed Europe.