The history of the development of oncology as a science. Oncology, what is it, a list of oncological diseases

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Oncological diseases include tumor processes of various localization and histological structure. In a broad sense, they combine benign and malignant neoplasms, however, practical oncology specializes mainly in the treatment of malignant tumors. At present, oncological diseases have significantly “rejuvenated” and are truly epidemic in nature, so the search for ways to prevent them, early detection and treatment is an urgent interdisciplinary problem. To solve it, narrow areas are distinguished within individual medical specialties - oncogynecology, oncourology, oncodermatology, oncoophthalmology, neurooncology, etc.

There are many forms of tumors that differ in localization, cellular structure, degree of aggressiveness, features of the course and prognosis, and a number of other factors. In oncology, tumors are usually divided into benign, conditionally benign (borderline) and malignant. Benign neoplasms are characterized by relatively slow growth, no tendency to metastasize, and a good prognosis. These types of tumors include fibromas, lipomas, nevi, papillomas, leiomyomas, neuromas, chondromas, angiomas, and many others. others

Conditionally benign tumors also do not give metastases, however, they have the ability to cancerous degeneration and multiple recurrence after removal. Examples of such oncological diseases are adenomatous polyps of the stomach, atypical moles, skin horn, senile keratosis, Bowen's disease, etc. Malignant tumors are characterized by invasive growth, germination of surrounding tissues, metastasis, recurrence. These types of tumors include cancer (carcinoma), sarcoma, lymphoma.

Approximately 10 million people are diagnosed with oncopathology worldwide every year, and 8 million patients die from one form or another of cancer. In Russia, every fifth compatriot runs the risk of facing cancer during his life. According to WHO, the "ranking" of the most common cancers is as follows. So, the most common "female" type of cancer is breast cancer leukemia, neuroblastoma, Wilms' tumor, lymphoma, osteosarcoma, retinoblastoma.

To date, there are many causes leading to the development of malignant tumors. Among them are unfavorable heredity, environmental problems, occupational and domestic hazards, stress, unhealthy diet, unhealthy habits, inactive lifestyle, viral diseases, etc. At the same time, studies show that about 80% of risk factors are potentially removable, i.e. Most cases of cancer can be prevented. This requires the efforts of not only oncologists, but, above all, the individual himself.

For the purpose of early detection of oncological diseases, regular preventive medical examinations are offered, periodic medical examinations of a certain contingent of people are carried out, and comprehensive oncological screening programs for men and women (“onco check-up”) are developed and implemented. All persons over 40 years of age should undergo a preventive oncological examination once every 2 years, and people with a aggravated background - annually. The most frequent studies included in oncoscreening are the determination of tumor markers.

Each patient must remember that cancer is not a sentence, and in the early stages, most tumors can be completely cured. The strong-willed efforts of the patient himself, the moral attitude towards a favorable outcome, play an important role in the victory over oncological disease. The Beauty and Medicine website contains the most complete description of oncological diseases, provides information on the methods of their diagnosis and treatment, profiles of the best oncologists in Moscow, and a rating of leading medical institutions successfully dealing with the problem of oncopathology treatment.

Oncological diseases are today considered the most common pathology after stroke and myocardial ischemia. And it is steadily growing every year. Many are afraid of such a diagnosis, although oncology is not always a fatal sentence.

To have a more complete picture of the types and forms of oncological diseases, we will consider them in more detail.

The concept of oncology

So, oncology is a branch of medical science that studies formations of a malignant or benign nature, their origin, mechanism and etiology of development, pathogenesis and diagnosis, treatment and preventive measures.

Oncological diseases are pathological processes accompanied by the formation of tumors of a benign or malignant nature.

Such tumors can form in any part of the body, so the diagnosis indicates a specific localization, for example, cancer of the breast, lungs, kidneys, etc. If the tumor is left without proper treatment, it will metastasize and spread to other areas of the body.

Reasons for education

The question of the etiology of oncological or cancerous tumors has occupied the world's leading minds for more than a century, so medicine is actively studying this issue.

Today it is reliably known that the growth of such cells is of a polyetiological nature, therefore it is impossible to isolate any one causal factor.

There are such common causes of tumors:

• Radiation and radio wave exposure;
• Genetic predisposition to oncological pathologies of a hereditary nature;
• The influence of carcinogenic substances that enter the body with poor-quality food;
• In the process of smoking, dangerous chemicals enter the body and which can provoke some forms of cancer;
• Some infectious diseases can be complicated by the development of an oncological process;
• Age plays an important role in the development of cancerous tumors, the older the person, the higher the likelihood of oncology;
• Wrong lifestyle like physical inactivity, obesity, malnutrition also contribute to the development of oncological processes;
• UV radiation from the sun can also provoke some oncological forms, such as etc.

Risk factors

It often happens that oncology is detected late, when it is no longer possible to cure it with medication. Unfortunately, there are situations when surgical and chemotherapeutic treatment is powerless against cancer. This disease does not spare anyone, since it can occur in everyone, regardless of age and gender differences, even in young children.

Therefore, each person can be alone with a similar disease. Experts have identified several factors, the presence of which increases the risk of developing oncology:

1. Wrong lifestyle (bad habits, wrong food, inactivity);
2. Ecological situation;
3. Age criteria;
4. Too high or too low income of the population.

First signs and general symptoms

Cancer symptoms are divided into general signs and local manifestations.

If local symptoms differ according to the specific localization of the tumor, then general manifestations occur in all cancer patients.

So, the general symptoms are made up of two syndromes.

• compression syndrome. Its occurrence is caused by the pressure of the oncological formation on the trunks of the nerves that surround the affected tissues and organs. A characteristic manifestation of the compression syndrome is soreness, which grows and becomes permanent. At first, it periodically makes itself felt, manifesting itself as a aching or dull character, but with the further development of the pathology, it intensifies, acquiring an acute permanent character. In the later stages of oncology, compression pain becomes completely unbearable.
• Syndrome of intoxication. Such a symptom complex is caused by a violation of metabolic processes under the influence of a tumor. The intoxication syndrome is characterized by:

1. Unreasonable weight loss, aversion to certain foods, problems with appetite;
2. The skin is noticeably changing, jaundice, excessive pallor, erythema, rashes, skin formations, etc. may appear;
3. Increased fatigue, general weakening of the body, a sharp decrease in working capacity;
4. Apathetic mood, depressive states, loss of interest in what is happening around.

International classification

According to the international classification, oncological pathologies differ in pathomorphological and clinical data.

According to morphological features, oncology is classified into malignant and benign processes.

- a tumor that is characterized by a slow rate of development or does not develop at all. Such a tumor is not capable of metastasizing to other systems or organs.

Benign oncology usually does not threaten health, it can be cured by surgery. But if provoking factors appear, then benign oncology can lead to organ dysfunction or retrain into a malignant tumor.

It poses a serious threat to the life of the patient. Such tumors are formed due to cellular mutation or uncontrolled growth. Their difference from benign formations lies in the ability to metastasize, penetrate and spread to other organs.

The photo shows comparative statistics on oncological diseases for 2014-2015

Malignant oncology is the most common cause of death after cardiovascular pathologies. The most famous type of malignant oncology is cancer.

Stages of development

To have an idea of ​​the breadth of the spread of the oncological process in the patient's body, experts have identified 4 stages of the development of oncological diseases:

• Stage I indicates the local nature of oncology, the absence of metastases and small formation parameters;
• The assignment of stage II oncology indicates the locally advanced nature of the disease, the tumor is larger;
• Stage III also characterizes locally advanced oncology, but on a wider scale, lymph nodes are involved in oncological processes;
• Stage IV of oncology refers to cancer that has spread to other organs or metastasized, it is also called the terminal stage of oncological diseases.

Types of cancer

Consider the varieties of oncology in accordance with the morphological nature of the diseases. Benign formations are divided into such types as:

• - a tumor consisting of adipose tissue is characterized by pain and mobility, which brings the patient a lot of suffering;
• - consists of connective tissue, occurs mainly on the female genital organs, is accompanied by menstrual disorders, painful sexual intercourse, prolonged menstruation;
• - usually found in the female genital area and is formed from muscle fibers due to obesity, hormonal disruptions or abortion, is considered hereditary;
• - is formed from bone tissues, has no tendency to malignancy, is congenital;
• - a tumor formed from vascular tissues is congenital in nature, localized in the subcutaneous layer mainly on the oral mucosa, lips, cheeks;
• - papillary formation, easily removable, occurs due to papillomavirus on the mucous membranes of the genital organs and mouth;
• - is formed from glandular tissue, taking the form of an organ in which it develops, occurs mainly in men in the prostate gland, is not life-threatening, but delivers a lot of uncomfortable sensations such as difficulty urinating, pain, problems with erectile function, up to impotence;
• - is a cavity filled with liquid, characterized by rapid growth, which can lead to rupture, blood poisoning and death.

Tumors of a malignant nature are divided into the following types:

• - grows out of connective tissue;
• Carcinoma - formed from the epithelium, occurs in most oncological cases (85%);
• or MRI.

  Therapeutic methods of oncological pathologies are divided into 3 types.

  1. - such therapy is often called radiology or irradiation, when with the help of special equipment an irradiating effect is exerted on the tumor, as a result of which the growth of the tumor stops, and its size is noticeably reduced.
  2. involves the introduction of drugs from the group of cytostatics, restoring the development of formations and reducing their size.
  3. Surgical treatment involves the surgical removal of the formation, and the affected lymph nodes.

  Prophylactic

  An excellent preventive anti-cancer measure will be a fairly active life and adherence to the principles of proper nutrition. After all, scientists have proven that obesity and physical inactivity increase the likelihood of cancer. In addition, it will not be superfluous to observe a sleep schedule, which will help strengthen immune defenses and increase the body's resistance to various pathologies.

  The main preventive measure against oncology is a periodic examination, because the detection of pathology in its infancy contributes to its 100% cure. It is especially important to regularly be examined for people whose blood relatives suffered from oncology.

  Disability

  Not all cancer patients are eligible for disability. For example, young and middle-aged patients undergo long-term treatment, after which the commission decides whether to extend the treatment or still assign a disability group. It all depends on the course of oncology and the degree of damage to the body.

The word "oncology" scares many, and for good reason. The number of cancer patients is increasing every year. Cancer is the second leading cause of death after stroke and myocardial infarction.

The diagnosis of cancer causes panic in people, but medicine does not stand still and today it successfully copes with many malignant processes, especially if early diagnosis and adequate treatment of oncological disease have been carried out. Therapy and follow-up of these patients are carried out by oncologists who have received specialization in a particular section of medicine.

Oncology

The branch of medicine, the purpose of which is to study neoplasms of a malignant and benign nature, the mechanism of their occurrence, the causes and factors predisposing to their appearance, the implementation and development of diagnostic, therapeutic and preventive measures, is called oncology.

Translated from Greek - onkos means heaviness or burden, and logos - science or teaching. A tumor, regardless of its benign or malignant, can form in any organ or part of the body, at any age and in both sexes. The localization of the tumor must be displayed in the diagnosis, for example: ovarian cancer or prostate cancer.

Incidence

The indicator that determines the number of diseases diagnosed for the first time in the current year is called the incidence. The statistics on the incidence of malignant processes today is very disappointing.

According to the WHO:

• Every year, 10 million newly diagnosed malignant tumors are registered in the world,
• There are about 35 million patients in the dispensary for oncological diseases.
• WHO staff suggest that over the next twenty years the number of cancer cases will increase by 70%.

In Russia:

• more than 500 thousand new cases of oncological diseases are detected annually,
• 300 thousand patients die, which is associated with a lack of funds for treatment (10%) and late seeking medical help (20%).

History of oncology

Cancer is one of the oldest diseases. Scientists have found that dinosaurs also had cancer. The first complete description of the clinical picture of a malignant lesion of the mammary gland was given by the progenitor of medicine - Hippocrates in his work "Carcinoma". Describing the symptoms of the tumor and the visible changes on the patient's chest, resembling the shape of an arthropod, he called the disease karkinos, which in Greek means cancer or crab.

Later, Galen and Celsus dealt with the treatment of cancer. The causes of tumors for ancient doctors remained unknown, but the only method for eliminating cancer was proposed - removal of the tumor, which did not always end happily. However, the doctors of those times correctly identified the predisposing factors for the development of cancer: skin irritation, mental discord, compression, friction seals and suggested herbal medicine, proper nutrition and a healthy lifestyle, and avoid stress.

Modern Oncology

In the 21st century, oncology continues its rapid development. The modern concept of the treatment of malignant formation is to carry out a complex of therapeutic measures. First of all, the issue of eliminating the tumor surgically is solved, which is not always possible. It is also possible to eliminate the neoplasm with an X-ray method of treatment in conjunction with chemotherapy. In addition to the above methods, innovative and experimental methods of treatment are actively developed and successfully applied in oncology:

• gene therapy;
• vaccination against atypical cells;
• cryofreezing;
• nanotherapy;
• the use of anaerobic microorganisms;
• laser therapy and others.

Specialties and sections of oncology

Since oncological diseases can form in any organ of the human body, oncology, depending on the location of the malignant process and methods of anticancer treatment, is divided into 24 sections:

• oncoandrology– is engaged in the study of neoplasms of the male genital area;
• oncogynecology- studies neoplasms of the female genital organs;
• oncogastroenterology- deals with neoplasms of the gastrointestinal tract;
• oncohematology– study of blood tumors and neoplasms of organs involved in hematopoiesis;
• oncohepatology– deals with hepatic and gallbladder neoplasms;
• oncoorthopedics - study of bone, joint tumors and neoplasms of soft tissues (muscles, ligaments);
• onconephrology - deals with renal neoplasms;
• oncodermatology - deals with the problems of skin neoplasms;
• oncomammology - deals with neoplasms of the mammary glands;
• oncoendocrinology- study of the formations of the endocrine glands;
• onco-pulmonology– studies lung tumors;
• oncoproctology– deals with tumors of the rectum and anus;
• oncourology– studies tumors of the ureters, bladder, urethra;
• neurooncology– study of tumors of the nervous system, including the brain;
• cardio-oncology– is engaged in the study of cardiac tumors;
• psycho-oncology– is engaged in the study of the influence of the oncological process on the psyche of the patient and his contacts with honey. staff and loved ones;
• oncosurgery– develops new methods of surgical interventions and studies the effectiveness of their use in the treatment of oncological processes;
• oncoepidemiology– is engaged in the study of the prevalence of cancer in individual groups or in certain areas;
• radiotherapy (irradiation)– study of the possibilities of cancer therapy with ionizing radiation;
• cancer chemotherapy - deals with the treatment of oncological diseases with special chemotherapy drugs;
• oncoimmunology with oncoimmunotherapy - deals with the treatment of oncoprocesses with immunopreparations and vaccines;
• pediatric oncology - features of the course of oncological diseases in childhood and adolescence;
• geriatric oncology - features of the course of oncological processes in old age;
• oncohygiene - deals with the issues of the mechanism of formation and development of oncological diseases and the development of preventive measures to prevent cancer.

What causes cancer?

It is impossible to name any one reason that provokes the occurrence of cancer. In the development of cancer, many factors play a role that act on the body simultaneously, causing the degeneration of healthy cells with the formation of a tumor in the precancer stage, and then its malignancy. All factors that can trigger the mechanism of carcinogenesis (the formation of a malignant tumor) are called carcinogens and are divided into several groups:

• physical carcinogens;
• chemical carcinogens;
• biological carcinogens.

But the influence of carcinogens must be combined with certain genetic factors, since one of the risk factors for the occurrence of a malignant process is a genetic predisposition.

Carcinogens

The mechanism of degeneration of healthy cells into atypical ones depends not so much on the impact of the so-called "cancer" factors, but on the duration of their influence on the body and on the dose of carcinogens, for example, one-time massive exposure or poisoning with a chemical compound in a small amount for a long time (production with harmful working conditions ).

Viruses

Viruses belong to the category of biological carcinogens, although their role in triggering carcinogenesis is not as great as chemical or physical carcinogens. A link between certain types of viruses and the development of cancer has now been scientifically confirmed.

• Hepatitis B virus has been proven to be responsible for 25% of liver cancer
• Cervical cancer and penile cancer are caused by papillomavirus infection (oncotypes HPV-16 and HPV-18 are especially dangerous in this regard)
• Up to 50% of cases of lymphogranulomatosis or Hodgkin's lymphoma are due to the action of the Epstein-Barr virus
• Kaposi's sarcoma develops in almost all patients with AIDS.

Tumor transformation is caused by the introduction of the viral genome into the genome of a human cell, which leads to its restructuring and the emergence of new, aggressive for its own body functions.

ionizing radiation

Physical carcinogens include varieties of ionizing radiation (alpha, beta, and gamma rays, x-rays, neutrons, and protons). Skin cancer, in particular its most malignant variety, is caused by ultraviolet radiation.

Under the influence of radiation or ultraviolet light, chemical reactions begin in the body, during which free radicals are formed that damage DNA molecules, which leads either to cell death or to the formation of new, mutated cells with altered DNA. These cells have the ability to uncontrolled division, which ends with the development of a tumor.

What other common causes of tumors are identified by doctors?

Other causes of cancerous diseases include:

• genetic predisposition;
• disturbed ecology;
• prolonged insolation;
• improper nutrition.

Direct transmission of cancer from a sick person to a healthy person is impossible, with the exception of organ transplantation, including blood transfusion. It has been scientifically confirmed that in 10% of the malignant disease is inherited (confirmation is the so-called "familial breast cancer" on the maternal side).

The constant poisoning of the environment, which occurs as a result of the development of industry and agriculture, leads to a violation of the environment, the accumulation of various carcinogens in nature, which increases the incidence of cancer.

Prolonged and regular sun exposure also increases the risk of skin cancer by several times, especially in people who like to visit the solarium. One of the causes of neoplasms is the love for various harmful products (fast food, chips, smoked meats, meat and fish semi-finished products, fried foods).

Risk factors

The group of risk factors or provoking the occurrence of a malignant disease includes:

• Hormonal disruptions in the reproductive sphere. Such disorders develop with irregular or rare sexual activity, inflammatory processes of the genital organs, the absence of pregnancy and childbirth, and the use of hormonal drugs, including contraceptives.
• Smoking. In 30% of cases, cancer of the bronchopulmonary system is diagnosed in long-term smokers. It provokes the development of tumors and passive smoking.
• Employment in hazardous work. Harmful labor factors, such as exposure to radiation, work in the chemical industry, in the construction industry, and mining increase the likelihood of developing neoplasms.
• Constant stress. Under the influence of stress factors, immunity is weakened, which makes the human body susceptible to various cell mutations, with their subsequent transformation into cancer cells.
• addiction to alcohol. In addition to weakening the body's defenses, alcoholism disrupts the liver, which processes toxic substances and alcohol, which ends with its rebirth, the development of cirrhosis, and then cancer.
• Age. The older a person becomes, the more cell mutations accumulate in his body and the higher the risk of cells degenerating into atypical ones.
• Income. Too high or, on the contrary, too low income is also a risk factor for developing cancer - non-adherence to a healthy diet and lifestyle, lack of funds for the treatment of infectious diseases, poor living conditions, and so on.

hereditary mutations

Under the influence of carcinogenic factors, mutations occur in genes, leading to a violation of the structure of the protein for which a particular gene is responsible. As a result, the “wrong” protein is formed in the body, which either does not fulfill its function, or its synthesis stops in the future. The stage at which a carcinogen causes DNA damage is called initiation or excitation.

When this stage is terminated (the body gets rid of the defective protein), no further formation of an atypical cell occurs. If the process continues, which is called promotion or assistance, the mutated cell begins to grow and multiply, which ends with the formation of a tumor. But such gene mutations, which in the future can cause cancer, do not appear in every family member. Whether mutated genes will give rise to cancer or not depends on the individual characteristics of the organism (the production of enzymes that neutralize defective cell proteins).

Cancer mechanism

Researchers have not yet come to a consensus about the factors that trigger the malignant process and the mechanism of its occurrence, but the pathogenesis of cancer is always based on damage to the cell genome. Carcinogens, having launched the initiation stage, lead to the formation of new cells, which acquire the potential for malignancy (malignancy).

With repeated exposure to carcinogens, these cells acquire new features: their differentiation (specialization) is disturbed, they begin to divide uncontrollably, lose their antigenic composition and functions. As a result, a neoplasm is formed, which is introduced into the surrounding tissues and grows in them, and atypical cells with lymph and blood flow spread throughout the body, where they form new malignant foci (metastases).

Stages of the oncological process

The oncological process in its development/growth goes through 4 stages.

• StageI. The node is large, but there are no metastases and lesions of the lymph nodes. The prognosis is favorable with early therapy.
• StageII. The tumor grows and affects nearby lymph nodes. The prognosis depends on the histological structure of the formation and its location.
• StageIII. The neoplasm grows into nearby organs or tissues, with the growth of metastases in regional lymph nodes. The prognosis is doubtful, only palliative treatment is used to improve the quality of life.
• StageIV. The neoplasm significantly increases in size, metastases are found in distant lymph nodes and organs. The prognosis is unfavorable.

Types of cancer

All oncological diseases are divided into 2 large groups depending on the histological structure of the neoplasm.

• Benign formations. This group is characterized by slow growth, the tumor is surrounded by its own capsule or membrane, does not grow into nearby organs and lymph nodes, and is not the cause of death of the patient.
• malignant formations. They are distinguished by very rapid growth, the absence of their own capsule, germination in nearby tissues and organs, metastasis to nearby and distant lymph nodes, and ultimately lead to death.

Benign formations, what they are

The cells of benign neoplasms are similar in structure to the cells of healthy tissues of the body. They slightly differ from the cells of normal tissues and are always highly differentiated, that is, they reach the maximum degree of development.

Benign formations have expansive growth, that is, they do not grow into nearby tissues, but only push them apart. Benign tumors grow slowly and are not prone to recurrence (they do not reappear after surgical removal). The formation of a new tumor in the same place after surgical treatment is possible only with incomplete removal of the tissues of the previous formation and is not considered a relapse.

Classification of tumors

Benign neoplasms can originate in any tissue. Depending on the histological structure, the following benign tumors are distinguished:

• fibromas - originate in connective tissue;
• adenomas- originate in the glandular epithelium, for example, prostate adenoma;
• lipoma - comes from adipose tissue (wen in common parlance);
• leiomyoma - originates from smooth muscle tissue, for example, uterine leiomyoma;
• osteoma - originates in bone tissue;
• chondroma - cartilage tumor;
• lymphoma - originates from lymphoid tissue;
• rhabdomyoma - comes from striated muscles;
• neuroma - comes from nervous tissue;
• hemangioma - develops from blood vessels.

Specific signs and properties of malignant tumors

Cells of malignant neoplasms are characterized by low differentiation, which makes it impossible to establish the histological type of the tumor. Due to the low degree of differentiation, malignant cells divide very quickly, not having time to "ripen" to the usual ones, and are distinguished by a variety and ugliness of forms.

Malignant tumors are characterized by infiltrating growth, that is, they grow into the surrounding tissues, damaging the vascular and nerve bundles. In addition, malignant tumors are prone to metastasis by lymphogenous, circulatory and implantation (spread along the peritoneum) pathways.

Also, malignant neoplasms can appear in the same place (relapse) even after radical treatment of the tumor (radiation or surgery), since they do not have their own capsule and their cells are introduced into the structure of normal tissue.

Also, malignant tumors lead to cancer intoxication due to rapid growth, which is accompanied by a significant consumption of nutrients and the decay of formations (blood vessels do not have time to form in them in the required amount).

What are the types of malignant tumors?

Malignant tumors, as well as benign ones, can form in any tissue of the body and are divided into:

• carcinomas (cancer)- develop from epithelial tissue (skin cancer, melanoma from skin melanocytes);
• osteosarcomas- develop from the periosteum, where there is connective tissue);
• chondrosarcomas- develop from cartilage tissue;
• angiosarcomas- develop from the connective tissue of blood vessels;
• lymphosarcomas- originate in the lymphatic vessels and nodes;
• rhabdomyosarcomas- from the fasciae of the striated muscles;
• leukemia (leukemia)- develop from hematopoietic tissue;
• blastomas and malignant neuromas- develop from the connective tissue of the nervous system.

Brain tumors are isolated separately. Regardless of the histological structure and characteristics, all neoplasms located in the brain are considered malignant due to localization.

International classification

According to the international classification, malignant tumors are systematized according to the TNM system, where, in Latin, tumor means a tumor, nodulus means damage to the lymph nodes, and metastasis means the formation of metastases.

Distribution of the main focus of the neoplasm:

• T0- is called carcinoma "in situ" (cancer in place), that is, the process is located in the basal layer of the epithelium;
• T1-4 - depth of germination of the primary focus, depends on the specific organ;
• Tx- time characteristic, metastases were found, but the primary focus was not diagnosed.

Spread of the tumor to the lymph nodes:

• Nx- whether regional lymph nodes are affected or not is unknown;

• N0- lymph node involvement was not diagnosed;
• N1- damage to nearby lymph nodes was established.

Metastasis from the main focus:

• Mx - determination of distant metastases was not performed;
• М0– absence of distant metastases during the examination;
• M1- Distant metastases occur.

Oncological diseases of the skin and soft tissues

Skin tumors originate from epithelial tissue, while soft tissue tumors originate from all non-epithelial extraskeletal tissues and can be benign, borderline, or malignant.

Benign neoplasms:

• fibromas - originate from connective tissue, can be localized in the skin, subcutaneous tissue, aponeurosis or muscle fascia;
• seborrheic wart - located on the skin, has a brown or black color and a bumpy structure;
• keratoacanthoma- located on the skin, and are a plaque with a depression in the middle;
• papilloma- the surface is bumpy or villous, but there is no hair;
• pigmented nevus- the formation is formed from melanocytes of the epithelium and nevus cells, looks like a pigment spot of black or brown color;
• lipomas- originate from adipose tissue, covered with unchanged skin, soft consistency;
• angioma- vascular tumor.

Precancerous or borderline tumors - with prolonged existence, they can degenerate into malignant ones:

• Bowen's disease localized on the genitals, scalp and palms, first presents as a brown spot, then a flat formation with a scaly surface;
• actinic keratosis- comes from keratinocytes as a result of the action of ultraviolet radiation, is characteristic of old and fair-skinned people.

Malignant neoplasms:

• squamous cell carcinoma- originates from the skin epithelium;
• melanoma- develops from skin melanocytes (the most malignant tumor);
• basal cell carcinoma- from the epithelium of the skin, the most common skin cancer;
• fibrosarcoma - from the connective tissue, where it is located;
• liposarcoma - develops from connective tissue, is deployed in the fat layer "
• rhabdomyosarcoma - develops from connective tissue in striated muscles.

Oncological diseases of the blood

All oncological diseases of the blood are malignant processes and originate from the precursors of blood cells or blood plasma, that is, from the cells of the hematopoietic tissue. They are most often diagnosed in children under 5 years of age and in older people over 60 years of age. By the nature of the course can be chronic and acute. The following blood cancers are distinguished:

• lymphocytic leukemia - develops from precursors of lymphocytes;
• myeloma - develops from plasma;
• myeloid leukemia - originates from bone marrow cells;
• myeloid leukemia - originates from granulocytic lymphocytes;
• hematosarcomas (lymphomas) - originate in the lymph nodes.

Oncological diseases of the breast

Breast cancer can be benign or malignant. Benign neoplasms include:

• adenoma and intraductal papilloma - are formed from epithelial tissue;
• fibroadenoma - epithelial and connective tissues are involved in the formation;
• lipoma and tumors of the skin of the breast - formed from adipose tissue or epidermis of the mammary gland;
• fibrocystic mastopathy- refers to dysplasia of the mammary glands, is divided into diffuse and nodular.

Malignant neoplasms include breast cancer, which develops from glandular tissue.

Oncological diseases of the chest

Oncological diseases of the chest organs include benign and malignant tumors of various anatomical structures:

• bone and muscle tumors;
• heart tumors;
• tumors of the esophagus;
• lung tumors;
• mediastinal tumors.

Malignant tumors of the mediastinum, which is a space bounded on three sides by the lungs, esophagus and sternum, include thymus tumors, which are the most aggressive. Some chest cancers are relatively rare, such as cancer of the heart or diaphragm, while others, on the contrary, are quite common - lung neoplasms.

Oncological diseases of the gastrointestinal tract

Oncological diseases of the gastrointestinal tract are a large group of neoplasms that can form in any of its departments and be either benign or malignant:

• neoplasms of the esophagus;
• neoplasms of the stomach;
• neoplasms of the pancreas;
• neoplasms of the liver;
• neoplasms of the gallbladder;
• neoplasms of the small intestine;
• colon neoplasms;
• neoplasms of the rectum;
• anal neoplasms.

Tumors of the esophagus, stomach and large intestine are more often observed, tumors of the small intestine occur less frequently.

Cancer urological diseases

Oncourologists identify and treat this group of diseases. Tumors of the genitourinary system are also divided into benign and malignant:

• kidney tumors;
• bladder tumors;
• prostate tumors;
• tumors of the penis;
• testicular tumors;
• ureteral tumors.

Tumors of the kidneys according to localization are divided into tumors of the parenchyma of the kidneys and neoplasms of the renal pelvis. The most common oncourological tumors are neoplasms of the prostate and renal parenchyma. The main method of treatment of oncourological diseases is surgical, but chemotherapy, radiotherapy and hormonal therapy are also successfully used.

Oncogynecological diseases

Oncogynecologists are engaged in the treatment of malignant tumors of the genital area in women. According to statistics, about 700 thousand oncogynecological malignant tumors are registered every year in the world, which include:

• neoplasm of the vulva;
• neoplasm of the vagina;
• neoplasm of the cervix;
• neoplasm of the fallopian tubes;
• neoplasm of the uterus;
• neoplasm of the ovaries;
• trophoblastic disease.

In turn, trophoblastic disease that develops during pregnancy is subdivided into hydatidiform mole, invasive hydatidiform mole, and choriocarcinoma.

Cancer symptoms

The clinical picture of oncological diseases depends on the location of the neoplasm, the degree of differentiation of the tumor, and the duration of its existence. All malignant tumors, regardless of location, to one degree or another are manifested by common symptoms that affect the general condition of the body. Local manifestations are determined by the localization of the tumor, for example, with uterine cancer, patients are worried about massive or prolonged bleeding from the genital tract, and with prostate cancer, difficulties with urination and potency. It is quite difficult to suspect cancer in the initial stages, as a rule, it is an accidental finding during examination for another reason.

First signs and general symptoms

The first signs of malignant diseases include common manifestations due to cancer intoxication, which should alert a person:

• sudden loss of body weight occurs in almost all patients with cancer;
• prolonged rise in temperature caused by the collapse of the tumor;
• weakness, fatigue present in advanced stages, observed with damage to internal organs;
• pain - the localization of pain can be different and its appearance is associated with the germination of the tumor in the surrounding tissues;
• skin changes - due to hyperpigmentation due to jaundice, skin color changes and itching appears, more often occurs with lesions of the digestive tract.

Fatigue and weakness

These signs develop during malignant processes most often and are due to various reasons:

• anemia - the neoplasm causes the destruction of erythrocytes, the main function of which is the transport of oxygen;
• malnutrition - many tumors lead to malabsorption of nutrients, vitamins and minerals;
• violation of immunity the body is not able to cope with the tumor, which can lead to the addition of a secondary infection;
• tumor growth into healthy tissue due to their rapid growth, malignant tumors “do not have time” to form blood vessels, which worsens the nutrition of the affected organ;
• change in hormonal levels a number of tumors affect hormonally sensitive organs, which causes hormonal disorders.

Sudden weight loss

This sign refers to cancer intoxication and is due to a number of reasons:

• disruption of the endocrine system neoplasm accelerates metabolic processes, which leads to faster formation of energy that is needed for tumor growth;
• gastrointestinal problems - difficulty swallowing, persistent nausea or vomiting cause loss of appetite;
• radiation / chemotherapy - one of the side effects of these treatments is nausea;
• anorexia - knowledge of his diagnosis causes emotional and mental disorders and the patient stops eating;
• the formation of cytokines Normally, they perform a protective function and are secreted in a small amount; in the presence of tumors in the body, they are produced in excess, which leads to disruption of lipid and protein metabolism and depletion of muscle mass.

Difficulty swallowing and digestive disorders

Difficulty swallowing or dysphagia is a typical symptom of a tumor of the esophagus or tumors of nearby organs (pharynx, intrathoracic lymph nodes, thyroid gland). Dysphagia in the neoplasm of these organs appears early, even before the onset of a detailed clinical picture. This symptom in malignant tumors in advanced cases is combined with other digestive disorders:

• pain during and after eating;
• appetite disorders;
• anemia;
• weight loss;
• increased salivation;
• persistent nausea;
• repeated urge to vomit;
• vomit.

Change in skin color and quality

A change in the condition of the skin is also one of the symptoms of patients with malignant tumors. Paleness or a grayish tint of the skin indicates the exhaustion of the patient and his anemia. If an oncological disease of the liver or biliary tract occurs, the patient develops yellowness of the skin, itching, as well as areas of hyperpigmentation (dark yellow or brownish) or erythematous (hyperemic, protruding above the surface of the papule) foci.

Skin cancer is indicated by moles or age spots that have become larger, bleed, change color, or the appearance of ulcers in these places that do not respond to treatment for a long time. With hormone-dependent tumors, the quality of the skin and hair changes. Hair becomes dull, falls out, and the skin is rough, too dry or too oily.

Fever and high temperature

A long-lasting body temperature not higher than 38 ° C is considered a late sign of a malignant tumor, which appears already in the last stages of the disease. This symptom indicates a sharp suppression of immunity when cancer cells have spread throughout the body. Also, fever can be caused by the attachment of a secondary infection to the tumor due to its disintegration, ulceration or bleeding from it.

However, subfebrile temperature, which lasts for several months or even years, can be an early sign in such malignant neoplasms as lymphoma, lymphosarcoma, or lymphocytic leukemia. Also, an elevated temperature is observed during the treatment of a patient with cancer with cytostatics as a reaction of the body to the suppression of immunity.

Urinary system disorders and stool disorders

Urinary system disorders such as frequent, intermittent and unproductive urination can be a sign of inflammation and the presence of stones in the urinary tract, and can be observed in men with an existing benign or malignant tumor of the prostate.

Painful urination and the appearance of blood in the urine, flakes in patients with oncourological diseases indicates the addition of a secondary infection and the onset of the inflammatory process. Disorders of the stool, characterized by constant constipation, followed by diarrhea, indicates a tumor in the large intestine. It should also alert such a sign as a change in color, consistency, the appearance of suspicious impurities in the feces and a change in its volume.

Diagnostics in oncology

Diagnostics in oncology occupies a leading position, because the treatment and the quality of life of the patient after it depend on the statute of limitations of the oncological disease, its stage, and the determination of the histological structure. Oncologists use a wide range of different diagnostic techniques, including laboratory tests and ending with functional research methods:

• radiodiagnosis - X-ray examination, CT, MRI;
• Ultrasound - conducting a study of the organs of the abdomen, pelvis, thyroid gland and more;
• radionuclide diagnostics- introduction of radionuclide preparations with further examination on a computed tomograph, ultrasound or X-ray equipment;
• endoscopic methods - bronchoscopy, laparoscopy, thoracoscopy and so on;
• biopsy - after a puncture or endoscopic examination, the resulting material is sent for histological examination;
• lab tests - study of the general and biochemical composition of blood, determination of oncomarkers and hormonal balance, immunological tests.

What should not be forgotten when assessing the risk of oncological pathology or suspicion of it

The risk of developing cancer varies from person to person, doctors have identified several risk groups for developing a malignant process according to the degree of its increase.

• Practically healthy people. This group includes people with a burdened history (the presence of cancer in the family) of all ages and all people who have exceeded the 45-year mark.
• Practically healthy people with a history of exposure to carcinogens. This group includes smokers and those who have quit smoking, people who work or have worked in hazardous industries, people who have oncoviruses that have undergone radiation.
• Patients with chronic diseases and disorders that increase the risk of developing cancer. This group includes patients with atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, immunodeficiency states, cycle disorders, and others.
• Patients with precancerous processes. Patients with atrophic gastritis are at risk for stomach cancer, those with colon polyps - for colon cancer, with cervical dysplasia - for cervical cancer, and so on.
• Cancer patients who received radical cancer treatment. In more than a third of cases, after radical treatment, such patients either have tumor recurrences or new ones appear.

Difficulties in the treatment of oncology

Difficulties in the treatment of oncological diseases are due to the fact that atypical cells are able to produce substances that cause healthy cells to transform into cancerous ones. Despite the developed and successfully applied methods of cancer treatment, each of them does not guarantee a complete cure in 100% of cases:

• surgery - the difficulty lies in the complete excision of the primary focus, cancerous changes invisible to the eye can recur into a new tumor after surgery;
• radiation therapy - many tumors are resistant to ionizing radiation and continue to grow and metastasize;
• chemotherapy - in addition to atypical cells, healthy cells of all other organs and systems are also destroyed (immunity is suppressed, general poisoning of the body occurs).

Diet

Proper nutrition will significantly improve the condition of a cancer patient and increase appetite, which often suffers in a patient with cancer. Recommended products include:

• green vegetables - cabbage: Brussels sprouts, white cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, cucumbers any garden greens: dill, parsley, lettuce (will increase the anti-cancer activity of immune cells);
• red and orange vegetables: red cabbage, chili peppers, beets, carrots (neutralize free radicals involved in the cancer process);
• any kind of nuts contain antioxidants that suppress the action of cancer cells;
• red, blue fruits and berries - blackberries, raspberries, mulberries, blueberries (contain a large amount of vitamins, have anti-cancer effects);
• mushrooms - stimulate the immune system, increase appetite;
• vegetables with phytoncides - onion and garlic (stimulate appetite and immunity, have antitumor effect);
• vegetable oil - contains vitamin E, which is an antioxidant;
• meat, fish and poultry of low-fat varieties - eliminate protein deficiency, improve the general condition and appearance of a cancer patient.

Cancer Prevention

According to WHO studies, about 33% of cancer cases can be prevented by following simple recommendations:

• rejection of bad habits;
• selection of the correct contraception;
• fight against excess weight;
• fight against hypodynamia;
• maintaining a healthy diet;
• prevention of stress and depression;
• refusal to tan, including visits to the solarium;
• timely detection of endocrine disorders and their correction;
• timely medical examination;
• vaccination against oncotypes of viruses;
• protection from exposure to harmful factors at work;
• refusal to use carcinogenic materials in construction.

Principles of precancerous/preventive nutrition

Rational nutrition significantly reduces the risk of developing any cancer. The principles of precancerous nutrition include:

• refusal of too cold / hot food;
• regular, 3-4 times a day, meals;
• normal ratio in the daily diet of nutrients;
• consumption of foods rich in vitamins;
• refusal to consume food carcinogens (preservatives, dyes);
• limiting the use of fried and smoked foods;
• the use of only freshly prepared dishes;
• limiting the intake of fats that have undergone heat treatment;
• daily introduction of fresh vegetables and fruits into the diet;
• refusal to consume convenience foods, instant soups and fast food.

Products for the prevention of cancer

Eating 1-2 foods from the list below daily will significantly reduce your risk of getting cancer:

• Vegetables and fruits. Preference should be given to fresh fiber, but processed vegetables and fruits also contain many vitamins, antioxidants and dietary fiber, which stimulate the intestines, strengthen the immune system and prevent the development of atypical processes.
• Green tea. Does not lose its antitumor properties, both hot and chilled. Enriched with antioxidants - polyphenols, which inhibit the development of cancer cells.
• Vegetable oils. Consumption of fresh vegetable salads seasoned with any vegetable oil reduces the risk of cancer. Vegetable oils are enriched with vitamin E, which prevents the growth of atypical cells and has a rejuvenating effect on the body.
• Sea fish. Rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids involved in cholesterol metabolism. Prevents the development of atherosclerosis and hypertension, which are precancerous diseases.
• Milk and dairy products. Due to the high content of calcium in them, which activates immune cells, it prevents the development of cancer.
• Bean cultures. They are high in protein and phytoestrogens. The latter are effective in preventing the occurrence of lung and breast cancer.
• Turmeric and They have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Prevent the development of tumor cells.

Disability

Disability for cancer is determined by the BMSE based on the documents provided and the current condition of the patient. A disability group can be assigned indefinitely or for a certain period until the next examination. Lifetime disability is awarded in the following cases:

• cancers with multiple distant secondary foci after radical treatment;
• existing metastases and undetected primary focus after treatment;
• the last stage of the neoplasm in the phase of its decay;
• pernicious tumors of the lymphoid and hematopoietic systems, which led to the aggravation of the patient's condition;
• benign tumors of the brain and spinal cord with impaired vision, speech and movement.

Oncology(from Greek. oncos- tumor and logos- word, science) - a science that studies the causes, development of tumors, their clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Oncology has its past, present and future.

Like many diseases, human tumors have been known for a long time. When studying ancient manuscripts, researchers discover descriptions of various neoplasms, as well as methods for their treatment, including cauterization of neoplasms, amputation of limbs, the use of herbal infusions, etc. From the height of knowledge of the current generation of oncologists, of course, the failure of these methods is visible, they seem incredible. However, the very desire of doctors of that time to treat these patients is admirable.

The opportunity to look deeper into the essence of the phenomena occurring in tumors appeared after the invention of the microscope. Experiments on animals also contributed to the development of knowledge in the field of oncology.

The founder of experimental oncology is the veterinarian M.A. Novinsky, who in 1876 for the first time in the world carried out the transplantation of malignant tumors from adult dogs to puppies. Subsequently, many researchers both in Russia and abroad were involved in tumor transplantation. At the same time, it was possible to obtain very important knowledge regarding the autonomy of tumors. On transplanted neoplasms, many morphological features of tumors were studied; they served as material for testing new methods of treatment. Currently, oncologists widely use in their practice the methods of experimental oncology, the foundations of which were laid by its founders.

All modern manuals and textbooks on oncology cite the observations of the English surgeon P. Pott, who in 1775 described a case of occupational cancer; from this observation

and began research on carcinogenesis. He described skin cancer of the scrotum in chimney sweeps, which was the result of long-term contamination with coal distillation products, soot. Further studies made it possible to establish that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), in particular benzpyrene, are the active carcinogenic principle. At present, along with hydrocarbons, carcinogenic substances belonging to other classes of chemical compounds are known. In 1932, A. Lacassagne proved that some tumors can be experimentally caused by large amounts of estrogen hormones.

An important stage in the development of oncology was the discovery by F. Raus (1910; 1911) of the viral nature of some chicken sarcomas. These works formed the basis of the viral theory of cancer, and numerous experiments on animals have shown that x-rays, ultraviolet rays, radium and radioactive substances can also have a carcinogenic effect.

A historical stage in the development of oncology in Russia was the publication in 1910 of the first manual "The General Doctrine of Tumors". Its author was the Patriarch of Russian Oncology N.N. Petrov. L.A. Zilber, M.F. Glazunov, Yu.M. Vasilevna. Kraevsky and others.

The first oncological institution in Russia was founded in 1903 by the Institute for the Treatment of Tumors. Morozov in Moscow. In 1926, on the initiative of N.N. Petrov, the Leningrad Institute of Oncology was created, now bearing his name. In 1951, the Institute of Experimental and Clinical Oncology was founded in Moscow, now the Cancer Research Center named after. N.N. Blokhin

RAMN (Fig. 1.1).

Opening at the Moscow University of the Institute for the Treatment of Tumors. Morozov took place on November 18, 1903. The initiator

N.N. Petrov (1876-1964)

Rice. 1.1. Russian Cancer Research Center. N.N. Blokhin RAMS

its creation was the head of the Department of Hospital Surgery of Moscow University L.L. Levshin (1842-1911). The money for the construction of the institute was donated by the family of the manufacturer Morozov. For the treatment of patients with malignant tumors, not only surgical methods, but also medicinal and radiation methods were already used at that time. The first preparations of radium were donated to the institute in 1903 by the spouses Marie and Pierre Curie.

In 1911, after the death of L.L. Levshin, the director of the institute was his student Professor V.M. Zykov. After the merger in 1922 of the institute with the propaedeutic surgical clinic of the First Moscow State University, the joint institution was headed by Professor P.A. Herzen. During the years of his leadership (1922-1934), major scientific projects were carried out at the institute, new methods of diagnosing and treating cancer were introduced. In 1935, the institute was transformed into the Central United Oncological Institute of the People's Commissariat of Health of the RSFSR and the Moscow City Health Department. Further development of the problems of clinical and experimental oncology was widely developed during the leadership of the Institute by Academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences A.I. Savitsky. During his activity (1944-1953), a network of oncological institutions was organized in Russia.

P.A. Herzen (1874-1947)

Deny. On the initiative of A.I. Savitsky created the Office of Anti-Cancer Institutions of the People's Commissariat of Health of the USSR, and he himself became the first head of the oncological service in our country.

On April 30, 1945, a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR was issued, and then an order of the People's Commissariat of Health of the USSR on the creation of a state anti-cancer service; The head institution in the RSFSR was the Moscow Oncological Institute.

In 1947, after the death of P.A. Herzen, the Institute was named after him. In 1948, the Institute was renamed into the State Oncological Institute named after. P.A. Herzen. A great merit in this belongs to the director of the institute at that time, A.N. Novikov. Since 1965, the institute has become known as the Moscow Research Institute of Oncology (MNIOI) named after. P.A. Herzen

Ministry of Health of the RSFSR (Fig. 1.2).

The scientific directions of the institute have always been distinguished by originality and breadth of interests. Here Academician L.A. Zilber was the first to develop a virogenetic theory of the origin of cancer; Great importance was attached to scientific research related to the diagnosis and treatment of small forms of cancer of various localizations (corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences B.E. Peterson).

During the existence of the institute, many well-known researchers worked in it: V.T. Talalaev, G.A. Reinberg, R.A. Luria, G.I. Roskin, G.E. Koritsky, S.R. Frenkel, I.G. Lukomsky; Here

Rice. 1.2. Moscow Cancer Research Institute. P.A. Herzen

N.N. Blokhin (1912-1993)

Corresponding members of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR P.A. Herzen and N.N. Petrov, academicians of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences S.S. Debov, L.A. Zilber, B.I. Zbarsky, L.M. Shabad, A.M. Zabludovsky, V.R. Braytsev, Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences L.A. Novikova, B.V. Ognev. For many years, Academician A.I. Abrikosov. The patriarch of Russian medicine, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences B.V. began his medical and scientific activity at the institute. Petrovsky.

After prof. A.N. Novikov, the directors of the institute were P.S. Pavlov,

then - S.I. Sergeev, B.E. Peterson. Since 1982, the Institute has been headed by Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Professor V.I. Chissov. At present, MNIOI them. P.A. Herzen is the leading research oncological institute of the country, the leader on the problem of "Malignant neoplasms in the Russian Federation". The institute employs: academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, 2 corresponding members of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, 26 doctors and 73 candidates of sciences, 19 professors, 17 laureates of State Prizes and Prizes of the Government of the Russian Federation.

The Institute's bed capacity is 300 beds. MNIOI them. P.A. Herzen is a leader in the development of organ-preserving, combined and complex treatment of patients with malignant neoplasms. On the basis of the institute, the Russian Center for the Treatment of Chronic Pain Syndrome, the Russian Republican Center for Physical Methods of Treatment work, clinical testing of new drugs (antitumor, painkillers, etc.) and medical equipment is carried out. The institute employs a friendly and enthusiastic team of highly professional specialists, including professors V.V. Starinsky, A.Kh. Trakhtenberg, I.G. Rusakov, S.L. Darialova, A.V. Boyko, E.G. Novikova, G.A. Frank, I.V. Reshetov, L.A. Vashakmadze and others.

Russian Cancer Research Center (RONC) named after A.I. N.N. Blokhin RAMS - one of the largest medical institutions in the world

and leading in Russia. Currently, about 3,000 people work here: more than 700 researchers, including 7 academicians, about 70 professors, over 200 doctors of medical sciences and more than 400 candidates. Over the years, the Center was headed by outstanding domestic oncologists and organizers of the modern oncological service - Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences M.M. Mayevsky, Academicians of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences N.N. Blokhin, N.N. Trapeznikov.

At present, the General Director of the Russian Cancer Research Center. N.N. Blokhin RAMS is an academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences and RAMS M.I. Davydov, who in 2006 was elected President of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences.

RONTS im. N.N. Blokhin, together with leading specialists of the country and with other oncological institutions, is leading the development of the Federal Oncology Program. The main activities of the Center are the study of biology, biochemistry, biophysics, morphology, virology of tumors; improvement of the scientific foundations for the diagnosis of malignant tumors, experimental and clinical development of new methods of surgical treatment of malignant tumors, means and methods of drug, radiation and combination therapy, etc.

The RCSC RAMS includes 4 institutes:

Research Institute of Clinical Oncology (NIIKO) N.N. Blokhin of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences (Director - Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Professor M.I. Davydov). The most important tasks

B.V. Petrovsky (1908-2004)

N.N. Trapeznikov (1927-2001)

Institute are the development and improvement of methods for the diagnosis and treatment of human malignant tumors.

Research Institute of Pediatric Oncology and Hematology (NII DOiG) N.N. Blokhin RAMS (Director -

acad. RAMS, Professor M.D. Aliyev). Organized in November 1989 as a structural subdivision of the Russian Cancer Research Center. Its most important tasks are to study the issues of etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of malignant neoplasms of childhood and the organization of a pediatric oncology service in Russia.

Research Institute of Carcinogenesis Russian Cancer Research Center N.N. Blokhin RAMS (Director - Professor B.P. Kopnin). All the main areas of fundamental oncology are being developed in the institute's laboratories.

Research Institute for Experimental Diagnosis and Therapy of Tumors N.N. Blokhin RAMS (Director - Professor A.Yu. Baryshnikov). Here, new methods for diagnosing and treating oncological diseases are being developed and undergoing preclinical trials, new original antitumor drugs, immunoprophylaxis agents, and immunobiological agents are being created.

RONTS im. N.N. Blokhin is the largest pedagogical school in the field of oncology in Russia. 5 departments work on its basis: the Department of Oncology of the RMAPE, the Department of Pediatric Oncology of the RMAPE, the Department of Oncology of the Moscow Medical Academy named after I.I. THEM. Sechenov, Department of Oncology of the Russian State Medical University, Department of Laboratory Diagnostics of the Institute for Advanced Studies of the Federal Directorate of Biomedical and Extreme Problems of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation.

In 1991, an office of the European School of Oncology, a well-known international organization that implements a program of continued medical education in oncology, was opened at the RCSC RAMS. The Center publishes scientific journals - “Bulletin of the Russian Cancer Research Center named after A.I. N.N. Blokhin RAMS" and "Children's Oncology", is the founder of the popular scientific journal "Together Against Cancer".

RONTS im. N.N. Blokhin RAMS for many years is a member of the International Union against Cancer (UICC) at the World Health Organization (WHO/\UNO) and a member of the Association of European Cancer Institutes (OECI)

in Geneva. Numerous divisions of the center carry out scientific cooperation with the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IACR) in Lyon, the European Organization for Research on Cancer Therapy (EORTC) in Brussels.

The Russian Academy of Medical Sciences attaches great importance to the problems of oncology. The resolution of the XIX (82nd) ​​session of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences "Scientific foundations and prospects for the development of oncology" stated the following:

“Oncology is a strategic state problem, a priority section of modern medicine, containing the most science-intensive and advanced technologies.

Significant progress has been made in domestic oncology, which is ensured by new achievements in fundamental sciences and successful scientific and practical developments.

The phasic mechanism of movement and control of the shape of tumor cells transformed by the RAS oncogene, which underlies tumor invasion, has been established. New markers have been developed for the differential diagnosis of tumors of the breast and cervix, biological microchips based on immunoglobulins for the diagnosis of lymphomas and leukemias. The system of development of multidrug resistance at the cellular level is substantiated, the individual features of the metabolism of carcinogenic substances that determine the risk of cancer development are studied.

A universal technology for the search and identification of tumor markers in biological fluids has been developed for use in diagnostic tests on the platform of mass spectrometry, proteomic technologies, blood plasma and tumor tissue.

Immunomorphological differences in cytoskeletal structures during carcinogenesis of breast cancer have been established, which is important for the differential diagnosis of tumors and the search for ways to normalize pathological changes.

For the first time, the pattern of excretion of oncogenes in the early stages of liver cancer development has been described.

It has been established that the DNA reconstruction method increases the detection rate of papillomavirus DNA in cervical tissue by 30%, which is promising for molecular cancer diagnosis.

Advanced research on the study of human mesenchymal stem cells has been carried out, patterns of directed differentiation have been shown.

Fundamental, in particular, molecular genetic studies have been carried out on the pathogenetic mechanisms of the onset and biology of tumors, which has led to new opportunities for individualization of treatment. In clinical oncology, molecular targets are already successfully used for rational therapy of various tumors.

An important achievement is the creation of new dosage forms (various types of liposomes) that provide selective delivery of the drug to the tumor tissue, which will increase the effectiveness of antitumor therapy and reduce the toxicity of treatment. New cytostatic drugs in targeted distribution liposomes have been obtained.

A significant scientific and technical achievement is the use of the radiosurgical method in neurooncology. The most important task should be considered the creation of scientific and practical centers equipped with modern equipment for radiosurgery.

The development of standards for the treatment of patients with brain tumors based on advanced scientific achievements is extremely relevant.

In oncohematology, new schemes of intensive cytostatic therapy have increased the survival rate for lymphomas (up to 80% of recoveries), which exceeds the global level; the possibilities of conducting intensive treatment regimens in patients in serious condition have been expanded.

The General Meeting of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences considers it especially important to implement in practical healthcare new possibilities for the diagnosis and treatment of malignant tumors based on the achievements of science. Modern methods of diagnostics and treatment should be available not only in advanced scientific centers. Treatment should be available to every patient.

The General Meeting of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences decided: to consider as priority areas for the development of scientific research in the field of oncology:

Molecular genetic studies to identify risk factors for cancer, its biology, individualization of treatment and prognosis;

Development of screening for malignant neoplasms in the early stages;

Research on the prevention of malignant tumors.

The pride of Russian oncology is the Research Institute of Oncology. N.N. Petrov. It was opened March 15, 1927 in Leningrad on the basis of the hospital. I.I. Mechnikov; the first director of the institute was Professor N.N. Petrov. In 1935, the institute was transferred to the system of the RSFSR NKZ. During these years, a 2-volume manual "Clinic of Malignant Tumors" and other scientific works appeared. In 1947, the institute was entrusted with the organizational, methodological and scientific advisory management of the oncological service of the USSR. At the Institute's initiative, in 1948, by order of the USSR Ministry of Health, preventive examinations of the population were introduced into practice according to the concept of forming high-risk cancer groups. In 1966, the Institute was named after Professor N.N. Petrov.

For many years, world-famous oncologists A.I. Serebrov, S.A. Holdin, A.I. Rakov, L.M. Shabad, A.V. Chaklin, V.M. Dilman, L.Yu. Dymarsky, Ya.V. Bohman, R.A. Melnikov, I.A. Frid, V.I. Stolyarov, K.P. Hanson, N.P. Napalkov and many others. At present, the main activities of this institute are: the study of the mechanisms of carcinogenesis; study of biochemical, molecular and immunological factors that allow assessing the risk of occurrence and features of the course of tumors; development and implementation of new highly effective drugs and high-tech methods, as well as the complex use of new and standard methods for the treatment of malignant neoplasms.

The institute employs specialists who represent all areas of clinical and experimental oncology. The clinic of the institute, with 400 beds, treats the main forms of malignant neoplasms; endoscopic methods of treatment are being actively introduced; organ-preserving, functionally sparing and saving operations are widely practiced.

The Institute takes an active part in international scientific programs, is an official member of the International Union Against Cancer (UICC) and the Association of European Cancer Institutes (EOCI), and also cooperates with WHO (\UNO).

The editorial board of the All-Russian journal "Issues of Oncology" works on the basis of the institute.

One of the largest oncological institutions in Russia is the Rostov Research Institute of Oncology (RNIIO). Its first director was Professor P.I. Buchman. In the future, in different years, the leaders of the research institutes were A.I. Dombrovsky, P.N. Snegirev, A.K. Pankov. Since 1982, the Institute has been headed by Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, laureate of the State Prize of the Russian Federation, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Professor Yu.S. Sidorenko. The clinic of the institute has 700 oncological and radiological beds.

The main scientific directions of RNIIO are the development and improvement of methods for the treatment of malignant neoplasms, the study of neurohumoral changes in the process of tumor development and regression, as well as the study of the spread of oncological diseases in Russia. The institute has developed original methods of surgical treatment of patients, drug therapy, and rehabilitation.

Research oncological institutes, as well as institutes of X-ray radiology, train and retrain oncologists of various profiles. The improvement of doctors in the field of oncology is carried out by the departments of oncology in the academies and institutes of postgraduate education.

The Research Institute of Oncology of the Tomsk Scientific Center of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences was founded in 1979. The Institute staff consists of more than 400 people; among them - more than 40 doctors and candidates of sciences. The directors of the institute in different years were professors A.I. Potapov, B.N. Zyryanov, currently it is headed by Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Professor E.L. Choinzonov. Institute scientists have studied oncological morbidity and mortality in Siberia and the Far East. For the first time in the country, the Center for Neutron Therapy was established to treat cancer patients at the U-120 cyclotron at the Tomsk Institute of Nuclear Physics. For the first time in clinical practice, a method of intraoperative irradiation using a small-sized betatron has been developed. The technique of laser therapy with the use of original lasers has been introduced.

Along with research oncological institutes, centers and dispensaries, radiological institutes and centers make a great contribution to the development of domestic and world science; among which are the Medical Radiological Research Center of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, the Russian Scientific Center for Roentgen Radiology, the Central Research Radiological

diological institute. The Hematological Research Center of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, the State Scientific Center for Laser Medicine, the Central Research Institute of Traumatology and Orthopedics named after A.I. N.N. Priorov, Institute of Surgery. A.V. Vishnevsky, Research Institute of Neurosurgery. Academician N.N. Burdenko, State Scientific Center for Proctology, etc. Back in 1934, the Council of People's Commissars assigned the Central Oncological Institute of the USSR NKZ - TsOI (now - P.A. Herzen Moscow Scientific Research Institute) - to train oncologists. By order of the NKZ of the USSR? 380 dated 10/29/39, the creation of the department of oncology as part of the TsOI was regulated from November 10, 1939. Professor Ya.M. Bruskin. The main activity of the department in the first 20 years was the training of oncologists. This was a stage in the creation of a new specialty, the formation of a new medical worldview, and the organization of an oncological service. Since 1948, the department began to train residents and graduate students. In different years, the department was headed by well-known professors A.I. Savitsky, B.E. Peterson, Yu.V. Falileev. Currently, the department is headed by Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Professor I.V. Poddubnaya. The staff of the department consists of well-known scientists and teachers.

Since 1974, all medical institutes of the USSR began organizing departments and oncology courses, the purpose of which was to improve the training of students in clinical oncology.

The State Institute for Advanced Training of Doctors of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation (GIUV MO RF) is one of the leading educational medical institutions in the country for the training and improvement of personnel for power ministries and medical institutions of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. In 1994, the Chief Surgeon of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, Major General P.G. Bryusov presented a program for the development of oncological care in the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation for the period 1995-2000. As part of the implementation of this program in 1995 at the SIUV MO RF on the basis of the Radiological Center of the GVKG named after. N.N. Burdenko, the department of oncology was created - the first and so far the only department in the system of military medical education. In 1995-2000 The department was headed by Professor I.V. Selyuzhitsky, and since 2001 - Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, laureate of state prizes of the USSR and the Russian Federation, Professor P.G. Bryusov.

The main activity of the department is aimed at improving the oncology of all surgeons, starting from the garrison level, which has significantly improved early diagnosis, ensured timely, adequate treatment of cancer patients and increased its efficiency. Under the leadership of the department in 1995 and 2000. All-army scientific and practical conferences on topical issues of clinical oncology were held with the participation of leading Russian oncologists.

Oncology departments are successfully functioning in medical universities in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other regions of Russia. They are headed by well-known professors M.I. Davydov, V.I. Chissov, Yu.S. Sidorenko, V.P. Kharchenko, I.V. Poddubnaya, V.M. Moiseenko, S.A. Berzin, A.V. Vazhenin, V.A. Porkhanov, O.A. Orlov, S.V. Pushkarev, V.G. Cherenkov and others. Edited by Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences V.I. Chissov in 2000, the first Russian electronic textbook "Oncology" was published, designed for postgraduate training of specialists.

In 1954, the All-Union Scientific Society of Oncologists was organized, which after the collapse of the USSR was transformed into the Society of Oncologists of Russia, reorganized at the end of 2000 into the Association of Oncologists of Russia (AOR). The association organizes congresses of Russian oncologists. The first such congress was held in Ufa in 1973, in 2000 the congress of oncologists was held in Kazan, three congresses were held in Rostoven-Don, the seventh congress was held in Moscow in 2009. Plenums and conferences on topical issues of oncology are organized between congresses. AOR is a member of the International Cancer Union, which unites oncologists from most countries of the world. This international organization was founded in 1933, and since then it has held more than a dozen international anti-cancer congresses, including one in Moscow (1962).

WHO has a dedicated Cancer Unit, which was founded and led by Russian oncologists for many years. In 1965, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), associated with WHO, was established in Lyon (France), which conducts a large scientific and publishing work that unites a number of countries.

There are more than 100 oncological dispensaries in Russia, which provide specialized care to patients with malignant neoplasms. The bed fund of dispensaries ranges from 100 to 600 beds. The dispensaries are equipped with the most modern equipment and receive treatment for up to 10,000 patients.

cancer patients. A corps of chief physicians has been formed in Russia - highly educated, worthily preserving and continuing the glorious traditions of their teachers.

The history of oncology would be incomplete without mentioning the public recognition of the work of outstanding oncologists, surgeons, whose work has been awarded various prizes.

Prize to them. IN AND. Lenin was approved by the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR on June 23, 1925. For an outstanding contribution to the development of science, technology, literature and art, this award began to be awarded from September 1956. In 1961, the Lenin Prize was awarded to a group of scientists: N.M. Amosov, N.V. Antelave, L.K. Bogush, I.S. Kolesnikov, B.E. Linberg, V.I. Struchkov, F.G. Uglov for the development and introduction into wide medical practice of methods of surgical treatment of lung diseases. In 1963, this prize was awarded to N.N. Petrov for a series of works devoted to the issues of experimental and clinical oncology, published in the books "Dynamics of the emergence and development of malignant growth in an experiment on monkeys" (1951); "Guide to General Oncology" (1958); "Malignant tumors" in three volumes (1947-1962).

The Stalin Prize was awarded from 1940 to 1952. The winners of this prize were: N.N. Petrov (1942) - for a series of works on oncology, A.G. Savinykh (1943) - for work on the surgical treatment of diseases of the mediastinum, S.S. Yudin (1949) - for his work on reconstructive surgery of the esophagus.

In 1966, the State Prize of the USSR was established, which later became a Russian-scale prize. In 1983, N.N. was awarded the State Prize of the USSR. Blokhin, an outstanding oncologist of our time, for research on the epidemiology of tumors. In subsequent years, a group of scientists was awarded the State Prize (2001) for the work "Surgical treatment of combined cardiovascular and oncological diseases." Among the laureates were: R.S. Akchurin, Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, M.I. Davydov, Academician of RAS and RAMS, B.E. Polotsky, doctor of medical sciences. In the same year, the State Prize was awarded to Doctors of Medical Sciences M.B. Bychkov, A.M. Garin, V.A. Gorbunova, M.R. Lichinitser, N.I. Translator, B.O. Toloknov, S.A. Tyulyandin, M.A. Gershanovich for the clinical development and introduction into medical practice of new effective methods of drug therapy of malignant tumors.

The 2006 Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology was awarded to American geneticists E. Fire and K. Melo, whose research concerns the properties of RNA: their results can lead to further development of the treatment of cancer and other diseases. M. Capecchi (USA), M. Evans (Great Britain) are named Nobel Prize winners for 2007 in the field of medicine

and O. Smithies (USA) for discoveries in the field of mammalian embryonic stem cells, which have become a reliable scientific tool for biomedical research in the field of oncology and for therapeutic work. The 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to the German H. Zurhausen and the French F. Barre-Sinoussi and L. Montagnier. The award was given to a German scientist working at the Heidelberg Cancer Research Center for the discovery of the human papillomavirus (HPV) virus that causes cervical cancer. H. Zurhausen was the first to suggest that certain types of HPV are the etiological agents of cervical cancer.

In conclusion, we can say that the history of oncology is rich in events, and most importantly - people who give themselves entirely to solving the pressing problems of oncology.

- 1.14 MB

Ministry of Health of the Republic of Belarus

Vitebsk State Order of Friendship of Peoples

medical University

Department of Public Health and Health

Head Chair-

Professor V.S. Glushanko

Teacher - A.A. Gerberg

Assistant T.L. Petrishche

ABSTRACT

According to the "History of Medicine and Pharmacy"

On the topic of:

« History of Oncology»

Executor: student of group 22, 2nd year

Treatment and prophylactic

faculty

Vasilenok Alesya Anatolievna

Vitebsk 2011

PLAN.

1. INTRODUCTION.

2. FIRST TUMORS.

3. DEVELOPMENT OF ONCOLOGY IN ANCIENT EGYPT.

4. DEVELOPMENT OF ONCOLOGY IN ANCIENT GREECE.

A) The concept of Hippocrates.

B) Representation of Galen.

C) Representation of Paracelsus.

5) HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THE NATURE OF CANCER.

6) DEVELOPMENT OF ONCOLOGY IN RUSSIA.

7) CONCLUSION.

INTRODUCTION

A tumor is a pathological excess, not coordinated by the body, potentially unlimited tissue growth, consisting of qualitatively altered cells, which are characterized by impaired maturation, morphological, metabolic and functional atypism. There are benign and malignant tumors. Benign tumors grow slowly, only pushing, pushing, and sometimes squeezing the surrounding tissues. Malignant tumors are characterized by infiltrative (invasive) growth: they grow into the surrounding tissues and destroy them. In this case, tumor cells can grow into blood vessels, and then be carried by the blood or lymph flow throughout the body and settle in various organs and tissues. As a result, metastases are formed - secondary nodes of the tumor, i.e. the tumor metastasizes. Incompletely removed tumor grows again (recurs). Benign tumors, as a rule, do not metastasize. A tumor arises as a result of the reproduction of one or more cells that have changed and continue to change. The development of tumors proceeds gradually, several stages are distinguished in it. Growths that immediately precede a malignant tumor are called precancerous, or precancerous. Each of the stages of tumor development is an indispensable condition for the next, but not each of them always passes into the next, which depends on the protective (immune) state of the body.

FIRST TUMORS.

Humans have been suffering from cancer since ancient times. Neoplasms have accompanied people, animals and plants throughout the history of existence. For example, tumor changes have been found in the bones of dinosaurs that lived on Earth millions of years ago. A jaw fragment from an australopithecine that lived about 1 million years ago showed signs of sarcoma. In China, the first reports of cancer appeared in the 12th century BC.

DEVELOPMENT OF ONCOLOGY IN ANCIENT EGYPT.

During the excavation of the tombs of ancient Egypt, neoplasms of bones were found in the remains of mummies. Before Hippocrates, very few medical works were written, but in Egyptian papyri from 3000 BC. there are references to cancer. Tumors are mentioned many times in Egyptian art, such as hydroceles, hernias, and breast enlargement in men, but there is not a single clear case of cancer. talk about ovarian cancer. Most of the other information about cancers that existed at that time was obtained from studies of skeletal remains, and in a number of cases signs of tumors, in particular the skull, were found. The oldest find - a tumor in the spine of a dinosaur! Therefore, cancer is not a new disease: it has been around for a very long time and, despite its poor understanding, has been reported with increasing frequency over the centuries. Bone neoplasms have been found on the mummies of ancient Egypt and the remains of a more ancient origin. Thanks to a CT scanner, archaeologists have found out that in ancient times there were cancer patients. The study of an ancient Egyptian mummy, stored in the Lisbon National Museum of Archeology as "M1", made it possible to diagnose prostate cancer. It was a man from 51 to 60 years old, who lived about 2250 years ago. Paleopathologists found 15 millimeter metastases in his pelvis, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, as well as in the femur and humerus. This form of tumor is typical for progressive prostate carcinoma. Other ancient remains were studied using a high-resolution CT scanner by Portuguese scientist Carlos Prates of Imagens Médicas Integradas and colleagues. An analysis of the dental and bone tissue unequivocally showed that a man who lived in Ptolemaic Egypt barely lived to the age of sixty, suffering painfully from his fatal disease. Where could a dangerous carcinogen come from? Scientists believe that food could be the cause of malignant tumors. She, as a rule, cooked on an open fire, and this is soot from fires, hearths and fireplaces. Shipbuilders came into contact with bitumen, which was used to caulk boats and ships. All these factors could lead to cancer of the lungs, gastrointestinal tract and other oncological diseases. A translation of one of the most studied works (Description of Surgical Case #45 by Edwin Smith) reads: "If you examine a patient with prominent tumors on the chest, you will find that they have spread throughout the chest. Putting your hand on his chest over the overgrown tumors, you will see that they are very cold to the touch when they are touched; they have no granulation, no liquid formation, no liquid secretions, and they do not appear to be raised. Tumors are large, overgrown and hard: touching them is like touching a lump of dense matter: they can be compared to a green fruit, hard and cold to the touch. "This could well be a description of cancer, but since life expectancy was then low, and the incidence of cancer increases with age, cases of this disease appear to have been very rare.

Along with this, a person tried to find ways to treat neoplasms (including surgical ones), which is reflected in the medical works of scientists from ancient Egypt, China, India, etc.

DEVELOPMENT OF ONCOLOGY IN ANCIENT GREECE.

Presentation of Hippocrates.

Two millennia before the invention of the microscope, the diagnosis of cancer was a combination of careful observation and hypotheses, since there were no means of proving the presence of the disease at that time. Some infections are similar to cancers, which, of course, gave rise to confusion. Nevertheless, Hippocrates clearly had good reason to identify a group of certain conditions as cancerous diseases, especially since he wrote the following about their treatment: “In cases of hidden cancer, it is better not to resort to any treatment, since the treated patients die quickly, and without treatment they can live long." Hippocrates considered the cause of cancer to be the accumulation in certain parts of the body of "black bile", one of the four fluids, the imbalance of which, according to the ideas of that time, led to the manifestation of diseases.

Representation of Galen

Another prominent physician Galen (129-201) also adhered to the theory of fluids. Similar to cancer. In the II century. AD another prominent physician, Galen, noted that the growth of a tumor outwardly resembles a swollen cancer. He wrote: “Carcinoma is a tumor, malignant and dense, ulcerated or without ulceration. It got its name from cancer ... We often observed tumors on the chest, similar to cancer, and how the claws of this animal are located on both sides of its trunk, so the veins, distended with a terrible tumor, resemble him in shape. Like Hippocrates, he warned against intervention at an advanced stage of the disease, but even then he supported the idea of ​​screening to some extent, concluding that the disease at an early stage could be cured: “We cured early cancer, but if the lesion without surgery reached a significant size no one was cured."

Presentation of Paracelsus.

Description of diseases was considered redundant, and most healers devoted their entire attention to treatment, so in the early history of medicine there are only a few reports of cancer. Early science relied mainly on visual observation, while Paracelsus tried to use some of the ideas of alchemy to better understand cancer. He believed that the essence of the disease should be sought in burn lesions. After examining burned tissue, he came to the conclusion that cancer is caused by an excess of mineral salts in the blood..

HISTORY OF CANCER STUDIES

Despite these theories, which are themselves rather incoherent, the nature of cancer remained obscure until Le Dran (1685-1770) suggested that cancer could arise as a local tumor and spread to other organs through the lymph (liquid tissue containing the most important fluids from blood that surrounds tissues and cells). When cancer spreads to areas distant from the original tumor, isolated islands of lesions called metastases form. This process was first described by Recamier (1774-1852).

Records of cancer of various organs began to be kept only at the time of post-mortem autopsy (literally "research after death"). At the beginning of the XVIII century. there was a rise in European culture and academic science, which produced famous scientists. Among them was the first eminent pathologist, Morgani, who published in 1761 a work describing cancers of various internal organs, including the lungs, esophagus, stomach, rectum, and uterus. Other classical descriptions followed, but it was Percival Pott, who described in 1775 scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps, recognized its possible etiological factor. As the reason for the development of cancer in these unfortunates, he named the carcinogenic effect of the chemicals contained in the soot. This can be considered the first description of an environmental carcinogen. Later, other possible associations were noted, for example, between smoking and cancer of the lips and nose. However, despite the considerable interest in the question of the origin and growth of tumors, despite the various attempts to treat them, the level of medical science for several centuries did not allow a deeper study of these diseases. This became possible only after the invention of the microscope and the development of pathological anatomy, especially after Virchow's work on cellular pathology, that is, in the second half of the 19th century. Experimental studies on animals were extremely important for the development of oncology. The ancestor of experimental oncology is a student of the outstanding Russian pathologist M. M. Rudnev, veterinarian M. A. Novinsky, who in 1876 for the first time in the world successfully transplanted malignant tumors from adult dogs into puppies. Subsequently, Jensen, Erlich, Bashford, N. N. Petrov and many other researchers were involved in transplantation of tumors. These works made it possible to study the nature and determine many characteristics of tumor tissues and cells. In particular, they proved the autonomy of tumors and the gradual increase in their malignancy. Many morphological and biochemical features of the tumor tissue were studied on transplanted neoplasms. The transplanted tumors have served to test new methods of treatment and, in particular, to study the issues of chemotherapy.

Japanese researchers Yamagiva and Ichikawa (1915-1916) began to lubricate the skin of the ears of rabbits with coal tar and got an experimental cancer. Subsequently, thanks to the work of Kinneway, Heeger, Cook and their collaborators (1932, 1933), it was found that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and, in particular, benzo(a)pyrene (BP) are the active carcinogens of various resins. The latter substance is very common in the human environment. At present, along with hydrocarbons, carcinogenic substances belonging to other classes of chemical compounds are known - amino-azo compounds, cyclic amines, nitroso compounds, aflatoxins, etc. In 1932, A. Lacassagne proved that some tumors can be experimentally caused by large amounts of estrogenic (causing estrus) hormones, and in 1944 C.Huggins proposed to treat prostate cancer in humans with these substances.

Both individual observations of occupational human diseases and numerous experiments on animals have shown that x-ray and ultraviolet rays, radium and radioactive substances can have a carcinogenic effect. The discovery of artificial radioactivity (Irene and Frederic Joliot-Curie) made it possible to widely use radioactive isotopes for the artificial production of tumors in animals and for studying the process of carcinogenesis.

An important stage in the history of oncology was the discovery by Rous (1910, 1911) of the viral nature of some chicken sarcomas. These works formed the basis of the viral concept of cancer etiology and served as the beginning of many studies in this direction, which led to the discovery of a number of viruses that cause tumors in animals (rabbit papilloma virus Shoup, 1933; mouse breast cancer virus Bitner, 1936; viruses

Description of work

A tumor is a pathological excess, not coordinated by the body, potentially unlimited tissue growth, consisting of qualitatively altered cells, which are characterized by impaired maturation, morphological, metabolic and functional atypism. There are benign and malignant tumors.