Internal causes of language development (Serebrennikov):
1. Adaptation of the language mechanism to the physiological characteristics of the human body. For example, a tendency to facilitate pronunciation, a tendency to unify the grammatical forms of words, a tendency to save language resources.
2. The need to improve the language mechanism. For example, in the process of development in the language, redundant means of expression or those that have lost their function are eliminated.
3. The need to preserve the language in a state of communicative suitability.
4. Resolution of internal contradictions in the language, etc.
But not all scientists agree to accept internal causes. Since language is a social and psychophysiological phenomenon. Without such conditions, it cannot develop. Language development is driven by external factors.
External factors of language development (Golovin, Berezin):
1. Associated with the development of society. An important role is played by the interaction of different peoples, which is due to migration, wars, etc. The interaction of languages and their dialects is the most important stimulus for their development.
There are two types of interaction between languages: differentiation and integration.
Differentiation- the divergence of languages and dialects, due to the resettlement of peoples over vast territories.
Integration- convergence of different languages. There are 3 types of integration: coexistence, mixing and crossing of languages.
Coexistence- this is a long and stable mutual influence of adjacent languages, as a result of which some stable common features in their structure develop.
Mixing- are united in language unions. Unlike the coexistence mixing- this is a kind of mutual influence when two languages collide on their historical path, have a significant impact on each other, and then diverge and continue to exist independently.
There are different degrees of mixing languages:
Light degree of mixing. High - observed in hybrid ersatz languages.
Crossing is the layering of two languages, in which one language dissolves into the other. That is, from two parents-languages, a third is born. As a rule, this is the result of ethnic mixing by the carrier. One nation swallows up another. As a result, the transition from one language to another is accompanied by bilingualism.
Supstrat and superstrat.
supstrat- elements of the language of the conquered people in the language, which was transformed by crossing two other languages.
Superstrat- elements of the language of the winners, formed in the third language.
A variety of languages are being developed. The development of the language at its different stages:
1. Phonetic-phonological changes. Implemented more slowly than others. Factors are largely due to the language system.
4 types of functional changes: a) differential signs of phonemes can change, as a result of which the composition of phonemes changes (loss of breathlessness, palatality and labialization - 6 phonemes remain); b) changes in the compatibility of phonemes. For example, the principle of increasing sonority has disappeared - as a result, unusual combinations of phonemes are now possible; c) change or reduction of variants of phonemes. For example, with the advent of reduction, vowels began to fall out; d) individual changes in a particular speech, all changes grow out of the individual speech of native speakers.
Reasons for phonetic changes:
1. The systemic factor is the internal logic of the development of the system (assimilation - the loss of b, b, closing of syllables, etc.).
2. Articulation-acoustic conditions of speech activity (nasal consonants have disappeared).
3. Social factor - least of all influences, but changes also depend on the speaking person.
2. Changes in grammar. They are caused to a greater extent not by external causes, but by the influence of systemic factors.
1. A change in form is associated with a change in content (many forms of declension have been lost - now gender is important).
2. Process of analogy ( doctor- originally masculine, but now possibly feminine, that is, compatibility has changed).
3. The distribution of functions between similar elements (there used to be a branched system of times).
These were internal factors.
External factors: as a result of the interaction of speakers of different languages, a change in grammar may occur (as a result of the penetration of elements from another language). External factors in b O influence vocabulary to a greater extent.
3. Lexical changes are caused by external causes. Types of lexical changes:
1. Morphemic derivation - the formation of a new word from the available morphemic material (computer +ization).
2. Lexico-semantic derivation:
a) the formation of a new meaning of the word as a result of rethinking the old one;
b) the emergence of a new word as a result of rethinking the old word.
3. Lexico-syntactic derivation - a combination of words “crosses” into one (today, immediately).
4. Compression - there was a combination of words with a common meaning, but the meaning of one word was lost, the meaning of the phrase was preserved in the remaining word (complex - inferiority complex).
5. Borrowing - when a word is borrowed from another language. One of the varieties is tracing (pomorphemic translation) (skyscraper - sky building), another variety is semantic tracing (we borrow the meaning of the word) (in French - a nail is a bright sight, hence: the highlight of the program).
6. Lexeme loss - the word leaves the language.
7. The process of archaization of a word (left the language) or meaning (godina).
8. Changing the stylistic or semantic marking of a word.
9. The process of developing the stability of individual combinations of lexemes.
10. Development of the idiomatic character of individual combinations of lexemes (integrity of meaning and non-derivation from the meanings of components) (Indian summer is a warm season in the autumn period).
The development of the Russian language is influenced by both external and internal factors. External factors in b O to a greater extent due to changes in vocabulary, and to a lesser extent - in phonetics, grammar.
As shown in the previous paragraph, a language develops mainly under the influence of the needs of the linguistic community that speaks it. However, there are also internal causes of language changes, i.e.
E. such developmental factors that are embedded in the very system of the language.
The internal causes of language changes are associated with the presence of contradictions inherent in the structure of the language and its functioning, the struggle between which is capable of causing changes in the language. Such contradictions in linguistics are usually called antinomies (from the Greek antinomia ‘contradiction in the law’). The most important of the antinomies capable of causing language changes are the antinomy of speaker and listener, the antinomy of system and norm, the antinomy of code and text, and the antinomy of regularity and expressiveness.
The antinomy of the speaker and the listener lies in the fact that the interests of the speaker are met by the maximum economy of effort in speaking, which manifests itself in all sorts of abbreviated and incomplete ways of transmitting information. At the same time, the interests of the listener correspond, on the contrary, to sufficient completeness of expression, which guarantees that everything heard will be understood by him correctly.
Changes in language may be in the interest of the speaker or in the interest of the hearer. In the first case, there are simplifications in the pronunciation of words and the construction of sentences, as well as the formation of abbreviated names (such as the words voenkor 'war correspondent', commander-in-chief 'supreme commander', land department 'land department', characteristic of the Russian language of the first decades of the 20th century), in the second case, on the contrary, the distribution of full forms of words and sentences, and in particular the formation of descriptive titles such as safety engineer, deputy director of personnel or organized crime department.
The antinomy of the system and the norm is due to the fact that the potential possibilities of the language system are always richer than the set of linguistic signs and rules for their connection, which is adopted by a given language community. Thus, the system of the Russian language allows the formation of participles of the future tense (such as *writing, *building)" or such forms of gerunds as *trya, *mogya, *burning, while such forms are not accepted by the norm of the Russian language.
In some cases, the antinomy of the system and the norm can be resolved in favor of the system, and then the prohibitions on the use of some potentially possible units are lifted in the language. It is precisely this removal of prohibitions that can explain the increasing spread in the modern Russian language of the nominative plural of nouns in a (ya): at present, not only the original forms of the words bakers, workshops, locksmiths, sectors, searchlights, but also new ones have become widespread: baker , shop, locksmith, sector, spotlight. In other services
1 An asterisk (*), or the so-called asterisk (from the Greek.
Aster ‘star’) ”, which is placed before the beginning of a word or linguistic expression, denotes in linguistics hypothetical units that are not really fixed in speech communication.
In some cases, the antinomy in question is resolved in favor of the norm, and then some linguistic units that are allowed by the system, but do not correspond to the norm, go out of use. It is as a result of the resolution of the antinomy under consideration in favor of the norm in the Russian language of the 20th century. the inflected forms of surnames of Ukrainian origin in -ko, -enko fell out of use. If in the literature of the XIX century. it was possible to meet forms of the type in Shevchenko, to Danilenko, with Nikitenko, then at present the norm has defeated the system and requires the use of forms in Shevchenko, to Danilenko, with Nikitenko.
The antinomy of code and text consists in the contradiction between the set of language units and the rules for their connection (code) and the text that is built from these units. The more units in the code, the shorter the text, and vice versa.
In those cases where the antinomy is resolved in favor of simplifying the text, the code becomes more complicated due to new units, but the text becomes shorter. So, the appearance in the Russian language of the end of the 20th century. a number of new borrowings complicates the code and at the same time is a means of reducing the text. For example, the word barter is much shorter than the descriptive designation of the same concept - a direct exchange of goods or services, the word grant is shorter than the descriptive expression additional funding for scientific research provided on a competitive basis, and the word impeachment is shorter than the deprivation of powers of senior officials in connection with their admission gross violations of the law. On the contrary, if the antinomy of code and text is resolved in favor of simplifying the code, the text becomes longer. It is precisely because of the simplification of the code before our eyes that such terms of kinship as brother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law leave the Russian language, being replaced by more cumbersome descriptive designations brother of the wife, brother of the husband, sister of the husband or wife of the son.
Finally, the antinomy of regularity and expressiveness is manifested in the contradiction between the informational and emotive functions of language. The information function requires the use of regular, standard language tools that make speech unambiguous and accurate. However, such speech is only minimally capable of conveying emotions. The emotive function of the language, on the contrary, is based on the use of non-standard language means that are unusual for the addressee.
It is the emotive function of the language that is the reason for the enrichment of the language with such figurative expressions as golden autumn, the sound of waves, a hail of bullets, or phraseological units (keep a stone in your bosom, bring it to a white heat, throw a fishing rod, etc.).
| Author | Book | Description | Year | Price | book type |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zhuravlev V.K. | This book is devoted to the fundamental problems of language evolution. It analyzes the mechanism of interaction between society, language and language community, traces the system of links between the development ... - URSS, General linguistics | 2011 | 568 | paper book | |
| V. K. Zhuravlev | External and internal factors of language evolution | This book is devoted to the fundamental problems of language evolution. It analyzes the mechanism of interaction between society, language and language community, traces the system of links between the development ... - Librok, | 2011 | 712 | paper book |
See also other dictionaries:
BIBLIOGRAPHY- Avanesov R.I. Russian literary pronunciation. Ed. 5 e. M., 1972. Avrorin V A. Problems of studying the functional side of the language (To the question of the subject of sociolinguistics). M., 1975. Alekseev A. A. Unwritten Dagestan languages: Functional ... ... Dictionary of sociolinguistic terms
Wikipedia has articles about other people with that surname, see Zhuravlev. Vladimir Konstantinovich Zhuravlev ... Wikipedia
Linguistics ... Wikipedia
Vladimir Konstantinovich Zhuravlev (b. July 3, 1922) is a Russian Slavic philologist. Specialist in phonology, comparative studies, history of Slavic languages and Slavic peoples, history of linguistics, sociolinguistics and linguodidactics. Doctor ... ... Wikipedia
Vladimir Konstantinovich Zhuravlev (b. July 3, 1922) is a Russian Slavic philologist. Specialist in phonology, comparative studies, history of Slavic languages and Slavic peoples, history of linguistics, sociolinguistics and linguodidactics. Doctor ... ... Wikipedia
- (b. July 3, 1922) Russian Slavic philologist. Specialist in phonology, comparative studies, history of Slavic languages and Slavic peoples, history of linguistics, sociolinguistics and linguodidactics. Doctor of Philology (1965), professor of general ... ... Wikipedia
Vladimir Konstantinovich Zhuravlev (b. July 3, 1922) is a Russian Slavic philologist. Specialist in phonology, comparative studies, history of Slavic languages and Slavic peoples, history of linguistics, sociolinguistics and linguodidactics. Doctor ... ... Wikipedia
Vladimir Konstantinovich Zhuravlev (b. July 3, 1922) is a Russian Slavic philologist. Specialist in phonology, comparative studies, history of Slavic languages and Slavic peoples, history of linguistics, sociolinguistics and linguodidactics. Doctor ... ... Wikipedia
Vladimir Konstantinovich Zhuravlev (b. July 3, 1922) is a Russian Slavic philologist. Specialist in phonology, comparative studies, history of Slavic languages and Slavic peoples, history of linguistics, sociolinguistics and linguodidactics. Doctor ... ... Wikipedia
Vladimir Konstantinovich Zhuravlev (b. July 3, 1922) is a Russian Slavic philologist. Specialist in phonology, comparative studies, history of Slavic languages and Slavic peoples, history of linguistics, sociolinguistics and linguodidactics. Doctor ... ... Wikipedia
Internal causes of language development (Serebrennikov):
1. Adaptation of the language mechanism to the physiological characteristics of the human body. For example, a tendency to facilitate pronunciation, a tendency to unify the grammatical forms of words, a tendency to save language resources.
2. The need to improve the language mechanism. For example, in the process of development in the language, redundant means of expression or those that have lost their function are eliminated.
3. The need to preserve the language in a state of communicative suitability.
4. Resolution of internal contradictions in the language, etc.
But not all scientists agree to accept internal causes. Since language is a social and psychophysiological phenomenon. Without such conditions, it cannot develop. Language development is driven by external factors.
External factors of language development (Golovin, Berezin):
1. Associated with the development of society. An important role is played by the interaction of different peoples, which is due to migration, wars, etc. The interaction of languages and their dialects is the most important stimulus for their development.
There are two types of interaction between languages: differentiation and integration.
Differentiation- the divergence of languages and dialects, due to the resettlement of peoples over vast territories.
Integration- convergence of different languages. There are 3 types of integration: coexistence, mixing and crossing of languages.
Coexistence- this is a long and stable mutual influence of adjacent languages, as a result of which some stable common features in their structure develop.
Mixing- are united in language unions. Unlike the coexistence mixing- this is a kind of mutual influence when two languages collide on their historical path, have a significant impact on each other, and then diverge and continue to exist independently.
There are different degrees of mixing languages:
Light degree of mixing. High - observed in hybrid ersatz languages.
Crossing is the layering of two languages, in which one language dissolves into the other. That is, from two parents-languages, a third is born. As a rule, this is the result of ethnic mixing by the carrier. One nation swallows up another. As a result, the transition from one language to another is accompanied by bilingualism.
Supstrat and superstrat.
supstrat- elements of the language of the conquered people in the language, which was transformed by crossing two other languages.
Superstrat- elements of the language of the winners, formed in the third language.
A variety of languages are being developed. The development of the language at its different stages:
1. Phonetic-phonological changes. Implemented more slowly than others. Factors are largely due to the language system.
4 types of functional changes: a) differential signs of phonemes can change, as a result of which the composition of phonemes changes (loss of breathlessness, palatality and labialization - 6 phonemes remain); b) changes in the compatibility of phonemes. For example, the principle of increasing sonority has disappeared - as a result, unusual combinations of phonemes are now possible; c) change or reduction of variants of phonemes. For example, with the advent of reduction, vowels began to fall out; d) individual changes in a particular speech, all changes grow out of the individual speech of native speakers.
Reasons for phonetic changes:
1. The systemic factor is the internal logic of the development of the system (assimilation - the loss of b, b, closing of syllables, etc.).
2. Articulation-acoustic conditions of speech activity (nasal consonants have disappeared).
3. Social factor - least of all influences, but changes also depend on the speaking person.
2. Changes in grammar. They are caused to a greater extent not by external causes, but by the influence of systemic factors.
1. A change in form is associated with a change in content (many forms of declension have been lost - now gender is important).
2. Process of analogy ( doctor- originally masculine, but now possibly feminine, that is, compatibility has changed).
3. The distribution of functions between similar elements (there used to be a branched system of times).
These were internal factors.
External factors: as a result of the interaction of speakers of different languages, a change in grammar may occur (as a result of the penetration of elements from another language). External factors in b O influence vocabulary to a greater extent.
3. Lexical changes are caused by external causes. Types of lexical changes:
1. Morphemic derivation - the formation of a new word from the available morphemic material (computer +ization).
2. Lexico-semantic derivation:
a) the formation of a new meaning of the word as a result of rethinking the old one;
b) the emergence of a new word as a result of rethinking the old word.
3. Lexico-syntactic derivation - a combination of words “crosses” into one (today, immediately).
4. Compression - there was a combination of words with a common meaning, but the meaning of one word was lost, the meaning of the phrase was preserved in the remaining word (complex - inferiority complex).
5. Borrowing - when a word is borrowed from another language. One of the varieties is tracing (pomorphemic translation) (skyscraper - sky building), another variety is semantic tracing (we borrow the meaning of the word) (in French - a nail is a bright sight, hence: the highlight of the program).
6. Lexeme loss - the word leaves the language.
7. The process of archaization of a word (left the language) or meaning (godina).
8. Changing the stylistic or semantic marking of a word.
9. The process of developing the stability of individual combinations of lexemes.
10. Development of the idiomatic character of individual combinations of lexemes (integrity of meaning and non-derivation from the meanings of components) (Indian summer is a warm season in the autumn period).
The development of the Russian language is influenced by both external and internal factors. External factors in b O to a greater extent due to changes in vocabulary, and to a lesser extent - in phonetics, grammar.
It should be noted that the human body is by no means indifferent to how the language mechanism works. He tries in a certain way to respond to all those phenomena that arise in the language mechanism that do not adequately correspond to certain physiological characteristics of the organism. Thus, a permanent tendency arises for the adaptation of the linguistic mechanism to the characteristics of the human organism, which is practically expressed in tendencies of a more particular nature. Here are examples of intralanguage changes:
1) In phonetics: the emergence of new sounds (for example, in the early Proto-Slavic language there were no hissing sounds: [g], [h], [sh] - rather late sounds in all Slavic languages, resulting from the softening of sounds, respectively [g], [ k], [x|); loss of some sounds (for example, two previously different sounds cease to differ: for example, the Old Russian sound, denoted by the old letter%, in Russian and Belarusian languages coincided with the sound [e], and in Ukrainian - with the sound [I], cf. others .-Russian a&gj, rus, Belarusian, snow, Ukrainian sshg).
2) In grammar: the loss of some grammatical meanings and forms (for example, in the Proto-Slavic language, all names, pronouns and verbs had, in addition to the singular and plural forms, also dual forms used when talking about two objects; later the category of dual numbers have been lost in all Slavic languages except Slovenian); examples of the opposite process: the formation (already in the written history of the Slavic languages) of a special verbal form - the gerund; the division of a previously single name into two parts of speech - nouns and adjectives; the formation of a relatively new part of speech in Slavic languages - the numeral. Sometimes the grammatical form changes without changing the meaning: they used to say cities, snows, and now cities, snows.
3) In vocabulary: numerous and exceptionally varied changes in vocabulary, phraseology and lexical semantics. Suffice it to say that in the publication "New words and meanings: Dictionary-reference book on the materials of the press and literature of the 70s / Edited by N. 3. Kotelova" SM. years, about 5500 entries.
I. Tendency towards easier pronunciation.
The presence in languages of a well-known tendency to facilitate pronunciation has been repeatedly noted by researchers. At the same time, there were skeptics who were inclined not to attach much importance to it. They motivated their skepticism by the fact that the very criteria of ease or difficulty of pronunciation are too subjective, since they are usually viewed through the prism of a particular language. What seems difficult to pronounce due to the operation of the system "phonological synth" to a speaker of one language may not present any difficulties to a speaker of another language. Observations on the history of the development of the phonetic structure of various languages of the world also convincingly indicate that in all languages there are sounds and combinations of sounds that are relatively difficult to pronounce, from which each language seeks to free itself as far as possible or turn them into sounds that are easier to pronounce and sound combinations.
II. The tendency to express different meanings in different forms.
The tendency to express different meanings in different forms is sometimes referred to as repulsion from homonymy.
The Arabic language in the more ancient era of its existence had only two verb tenses - the perfect, for example, katabtu "I wrote" and the imperfect aktubu "I wrote". These times originally had species value, but not temporary. As for their ability to express the relation of an action to a certain time plan, in this respect the above tenses were polysemantic. So, for example, the imperfect could have the meaning of the present, future and past tenses. This communication inconvenience required the creation of additional funds. So, for example, adding the particle qad to the forms of the perfect contributed to a clearer delineation of the perfect itself, for example, qad kataba "He (already) wrote." Adding the prefix sa- to imperfect forms such as sanaktubu "we will write" or "we will write" made it possible to express the future tense more clearly. Finally, the use of the perfect forms of the auxiliary verb kāna "to be" in conjunction with the imperfect forms, for example, kāna jaktubu "he wrote" made it possible to more clearly express the past continuous.
III. The tendency to express the same or similar meanings in the same form.
This trend is manifested in a number of phenomena that are widespread in various languages of the world, which are usually called the alignment of forms by analogy. Two most typical cases of alignment of forms by analogy can be noted: 1) alignment of forms that are absolutely identical in meaning, but different in appearance, and 2) alignment of forms that are different in appearance and reveal only a partial similarity of functions or meanings.
Words like table, horse and son in the Old Russian language had specific endings in the dative instrumental and prepositional plural cases.
D. table horse son
T. tables horses sons
P. table of horse sons
In modern Russian, they have one common ending: tables, tables, tables; horses, horses, horses; sons, sons, sons. These common endings arose as a result of transferring, by analogy, the corresponding case endings of nouns representing the old stems in -ā, -jā such as sister, earth, cf. other Russian sisters, sisters, sisters; lands, lands, lands, etc. For alignment by analogy, the similarity of case functions turned out to be quite sufficient.
IV. The tendency to create clear boundaries between morphemes.
It may happen that the boundary between the stem and suffixes becomes not clear enough due to the merger of the final vowel of the stem with the initial vowel of the suffix. So, for example, a characteristic feature of the declension types in the Indo-European stem language was the preservation in the declension paradigm of the stem and its distinguishing feature, i.e., the final vowel of the stem. As an example for comparison, we can cite the reconstructed declension paradigm of the Russian word zhena, compared with the declension paradigm of this word in modern Russian. Only singular forms are given.
I. genā wife
P. genā-s wives
D. genā-i to wife
B. genā-m wife
M. genā-i wife
It is easy to see that in the conjugation paradigm of the word wife, the former axis of the paradigm - the basis on -ā - is no longer maintained due to its modification in oblique cases as a result<244>various phonetic changes, which in some cases led to the merger of the stem vowel a with the vowel of the newly formed case suffix, for example, genāi > gene > wife, genām > geno > wife, etc. In order to restore clear boundaries between the word stem and the case suffix in in the minds of the speakers, a re-decomposition of the stems took place, and the sound that used to act as the final vowel of the stem went to the suffix.
V. Trend towards economy of language resources.
The tendency to economize on linguistic resources is one of the most powerful internal trends that is manifested in various languages of the world. It can be a priori stated that there is not a single language on the globe in which 150 phonemes, 50 verb tenses and 30 different plural endings would differ. A language of this kind, burdened with a detailed arsenal of expressive means, would not facilitate, but, on the contrary, would make it difficult for people to communicate. Therefore, every language has a natural resistance to over-detailing. In the process of using a language as a means of communication, often spontaneously and independently of the will of the speakers themselves, the principle of the most rational and economical selection of language means really necessary for the purposes of communication is implemented.
The results of this trend are manifested in the most diverse areas of the language. So, for example, in one form of the instrumental case, its most diverse meanings can be included: the instrumental agent, the instrumental adverbial, the instrumental objective, the instrumental limitation, the instrumental predicative, the instrumental adjective, the instrumental comparison, etc. The genitive case has no less richness of individual meanings. : genitive quantitative, genitive predicative, genitive belonging, genitive weight, genitive object, etc. If each of these meanings were expressed in a separate form, then this would lead to an incredible cumbersome case system.
The vocabulary of the language, numbering many tens of thousands of words, opens up wide opportunities for the realization in the language of a huge number of sounds and their various shades. In fact, each language is content with a relatively small number of phonemes endowed with a meaningful function. How these few functions are singled out, no one has ever investigated. Modern phonologists are concerned with the function of phonemes, but not with the history of their origin. One can only assume a priori that some kind of spontaneous rational selection took place in this area, subject to a certain principle. In each language, apparently, a selection of a complex of phonemes associated with a useful opposition has taken place, although the appearance of new sounds in the language is not explained only by these reasons. With the principle of economy, apparently, the tendency to designate the same values with one form is connected.
One of the clearest manifestations of the trend towards economy is the tendency to create typical monotony. Each language is constantly striving to create a type uniformity.
VI. The trend towards limiting the complexity of speech messages.
The latest research indicates that psychological factors act in the process of generating speech, limiting the complexity of speech messages.
The process of generating speech occurs, in all likelihood, by sequentially recoding phonemes into morphemes, morphemes into words, and words into sentences. At some of these levels, recoding is carried out not in the long-term, but in the human operative memory, the volume of which is limited and equal to 7 ± 2 characters of the message. Therefore, the maximum ratio of the number of units of the lower level of the language contained in one unit of a higher level, provided that the transition from the lower level to the higher one is carried out in RAM, cannot exceed 9: 1.
The capacity of RAM imposes restrictions not only on the depth, but also on the length of words. As a result of a number of linguo-psychological experiments, it was found that with an increase in the length of words beyond seven syllables, a deterioration in the perception of the message is observed. For this reason, with an increase in the length of words, the probability of their occurrence in texts sharply decreases. This limit of word length perception was found in experiments with isolated words. Context makes things easier to understand. The upper limit of the perception of words in context is approximately 10 syllables.
Given the favorable role of the context - intra-word and inter-word - in word recognition, it should be expected that exceeding the critical word length of 9 syllables, determined by the amount of RAM, greatly complicates their perception. The data of linguo-psychological experiments definitely indicate that the volume of perception of the length and depth of words is equal to the volume of a person's working memory. And in those styles of natural languages that are focused on the oral form of communication, the maximum length of words cannot exceed 9 syllables, and their maximum depth - 9 morphemes.
VII. The tendency to change the phonetic appearance of a word when it loses its lexical meaning.
This tendency is most clearly expressed in the process of transforming a significant word into a suffix. So, for example, in the Chuvash language there is an instrumental case characterized by the suffix -pa, -pe, cf. Chuv. pencilpa "pencil", văype "by force". This ending developed from the postposition palan, veil "c"
In colloquial English, the auxiliary verb have in the perfect forms, having lost its lexical meaning, was actually reduced to the sound "v", and the form had to the sound "d", for example, I "v written "I wrote", he "d written" he wrote " etc.
The phonetic appearance of a word changes in frequently used words due to a change in their original meaning. A striking example is the non-phonetic dropping of the final g in the Russian word thank you, which goes back to the phrase God save. The frequent use of this word and the associated change in meaning God save > thank you - led to the destruction of its original phonetic appearance.
VIII. The tendency to create languages with a simple morphological structure.
In the languages of the world, there is a certain tendency to create a language type characterized by the simplest way of combining morphemes. It is curious that in the languages of the world the overwhelming majority are languages of the agglutinative type. Languages with internal inflection are relatively rare.
This fact has its specific reasons. In agglutinating languages, morphemes, as a rule, are marked, their boundaries in the word are defined. This creates a clear intra-word context allowing morphemes to be identified in the longest sequences. This advantage of agglutinative languages was pointed out at one time by I. N. Baudouin de Courtenay, who wrote the following on this subject: “Languages in which all attention in terms of morphological exponents is focused on the affixes following after the main morpheme (root) (Ural-Altaic languages , Finno-Ugric, etc.), are more sober and require much less expenditure of mental energy than languages in which morphological exponents are additions at the beginning of a word, additions at the end of a word, and psychophonetic alternations within a word.
End of work -
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language code. Each language community uses certain means of communication - languages, their dialects, jargons, stylistic varieties of the language. Any such means of communication can be
Language community
At first glance, the concept of a language community does not need clarification - it is a community of people who speak a given language. In reality, however, this understanding is not enough. For example, fr
Hypotheses of the origin of the language
There are a number of hypotheses about the origin of the language, but none of them can be confirmed by facts due to the huge remoteness of the event in time. They remain hypotheses because they cannot be
Human communication and animal communication
From the point of view of semiotics, language is natural i.e. "not invented") and at the same time not an innate (i.e. non-biological) sign system, comparable with other communication systems, with
The concept of the system and the systemic nature of the language
system in the explanatory dictionary 1. a certain order based on the planned arrangement and interconnection of parts of something 2. Classification, grouping 3. Scoop
The concept of opposition
Opposition in linguistics, one of the basic concepts of the structural-functional concept, which considers language as a system of mutually opposed elements. O. is usually defined as a linguistic
The concept of variability. Stratification and situational variability
If we can switch from one language to another in the process of communication, for example, when changing the addressee, while continuing to discuss the same topic, this means that we have at our disposal
Language - speech
The concept of language and speech are among the most important and complex concepts of linguistics. They are of great importance for the norms of the language and its practical description. However, in the practice of linguistics sometimes
The concept of speech behavior. The practice of speech behavior
The term speech behavior emphasizes the one-sidedness of the process: it denotes those properties and features that distinguish the speech and speech reactions of one of the participants in the communicative
The role of the hearer
The listener is able to influence the speech behavior of the speaker, tk. he is close by and his reaction is obvious. In certain situations, a conflict may arise between the speaker and the listener. For example,
Verbal and non-verbal communication
The term "communication" is ambiguous: it is used, for example, in the combination "mass media" (meaning the press, radio, television), in technology it is used to refer to lines
The structure of the communicative act. Language Features
Modern ideas about the functions of the language (i.e., about its role or purpose in the life of society) can be systematized in accordance with the structure of the communicative act as the basic concept of those
Communicative situation
The communicative situation has a certain structure. It consists of the following components: 1) speaker (addressee); 2) listener (addressee); 3) the relationship between the speaker and the listener and related to
Language and culture. The manifestation of national specificity in the language
The problem of "language and culture" is multifaceted. Two questions immediately arise: 1) how do various cultural processes influence language? 2) How does language affect culture? However, above all legal in
The principle of linguistic relativity - the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
The belief that people see the world differently - through the prism of their native language, underlies the theory of "linguistic relativity" by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf. They aspired
Language and thought. The connection between language and thinking
Language is a system of verbal expression of thoughts. But the question arises, can a person think without resorting to language? Most researchers believe that thinking
Typology of languages
PHONETIC-PHONOLOGICAL AND PROSODIC TYPOLOGY. The typology of the sound organization of languages arose in the 20th century. Its pioneers were members of the Prague Linguistic Circle. Blagod
Forms of language existence
The forms of existence of the language are territorial dialects (dialects), supra-dialect language formations (Koine), various social dialects (professional speech, professional slang,
Literary language. Norm of the literary language
All forms of existence of a national language (literary language, territorial and social dialects, vernacular, professional speech, youth slang, etc.) in society (people, ethnographic
Functional styles of literary language
Functional styles of speech - a historically established system of speech means used in a particular area of human communication; a kind of literary language that performs a certain function
Spoken language and vernacular. Dialects. Dialects as a historical category
Colloquial vocabulary - these are words that are used in everyday everyday colloquial speech, have the character of ease and therefore are not always appropriate in written, book speech, for example, gas
Koine as a means of interdialect and international communication
Even in pre-literate times, contacts of multilingual tribes led to the fact that the most mobile and intellectually active men mastered a foreign language and, thus, performed the functions of a translator.
Idiolect. The concept of linguistic personality
Idiolect [from Greek. idios - own, peculiar, special n (dia)lect] - a set of formal and stylistic features characteristic of the speech of an individual speaker of a given language. The term "I." created by
Language - macro mediator, regional language, local language, professional language, ritual language
FUNCTIONAL TYPOLOGY OF LANGUAGES Taking into account the spheres and environments of communication - underlies the allocation of functional types of languages, carried out by V. A. Avrorin in the book “Problems of studying the functional
Jargon. Argo
Argo. The terms slang and jargon are French in origin (fr. argot, jargo). These terms are often used interchangeably. However, it is advisable to distinguish between concepts that hide
External factors of language development. Processes of differentiation and integration in the history of languages
Being part of a system of a more complex order, not a single language of the world develops under a glass jar. The external environment continuously influences him and leaves rather tangible traces in the most
Language contact processes: borrowing, bilingualism (causes of bilingualism), interference as a type of language contact
BORROWING, the process as a result of which some foreign language element appears and is fixed in the language (first of all, a word or a full-valued morpheme); also such a foreign language element itself. Zaim
Forms of language contacts: substratum, adstratum, superstratum
The concepts of "divergence" and "convergence" are useful for determining the vectors of linguistic interaction, however, the composition of the "alloy" (which is any language) remains
Change of socio-historical formations as an external factor in the development of the language: tribal languages, the language of the people
Being a social phenomenon, the language reflects the originality of the specific historical features of the development of each of the peoples, their unique social and communicative situations. However, carried
Language and nation. National languages
The ancient syncretism of the meanings "language" and "people" in the word language, dating back to the Old Slavonic texts, is known to the languages of various families: Indo-European (for example, Latin lingua), Finno-
The formation of the Russian national language
The modern Russian language is a continuation of the Old Russian (East Slavonic) language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, which formed in the 9th century. ancient Russian nationality
Linguistic community and mother tongue
The common language is one of the most important conditions for the formation of ethnic groups. Usually the name of the people and language coincide. However, the concepts of "ethnic community" and "linguistic community" are far from being identical. Oby
The concept of a language situation
The language situation is "a specific type of interaction between languages and different forms of their existence in the public life of every nation at a given stage of its historical development." This is the most general definition
Bilingualism and diglossia
Natural languages are fundamentally heterogeneous: they exist in many of their varieties, the formation and functioning of which is due to a certain social differentiation of society.
National language policy
Under the national language policy is understood the impact of society in a multinational and / or multilingual society on the functional relationship between individual languages. This impact was
Language Prediction
“Language forecasting is an extrapolation to the future of established laws that have the nature of trends in language” [Schweitzer, Nikolsky, 1978. - P. 123]. Forecasting should be based
language building
Language policy is understood as a set of measures taken by the state to “change or maintain the existing functional distribution of languages or language subsystems, to introduce new
Language problems of the Russian Federation
Linguists and ethnologists can give thousands of examples of peoples and their languages that disappeared without a trace in the course of history. As a rule, an ethnos and its language disappear as a result of wars or some kind of cataclysms, but in the morning
Types of language conflicts
Over the past three or four decades, language conflicts have begun to emerge in developing countries as an indicator of national development and social change. It became obvious that such conf