The life of mushrooms in nature is influenced by numerous factors. external environment, especially diverse on land, where the majority now live existing species mushrooms This chemical composition substrate, air temperature and humidity, oxygen and carbon dioxide content, precipitation, intensity of solar radiation, wind speed, interaction with other organisms - animals, plants, microorganisms, and finally, various anthropogenic impacts - trampling, mushroom picking, grazing, etc. .
They are absorbed by the mycelium osmotically over its entire surface or its specialized parts. This method of nutrition is called diffusion-osmotic or osmotrophy.
Fungi are found wherever there is plant debris, such as fallen leaves, decaying wood, animal remains, and cause their decomposition and mineralization, as well as the formation of humus.
Thus, fungi are decomposers (i.e., destroyers), like bacteria and some other organisms.
Saprotrophs are usually relatively unspecialized in terms of nutrition. Availability of certain organic compounds for them complex structure- polysaccharides, proteins, etc. is determined by the ability of such fungi to synthesize and release enzymes into the environment that decompose these substances into simpler components - simple sugars, amino acids, etc. In this ability, mushrooms vary greatly: some of them are able to use only simple carbohydrates, organic acids, alcohols, etc. (they are often called sugar mushrooms), while others form hydrolytic enzymes that decompose starch, cellulose, proteins, chitin, etc., and can develop on substrates containing these substances. Therefore, in the process of decomposition of plant debris, such as litter or wood, there is a natural replacement of some types of fungi by others, called succession.
Among saprotrophs, we sometimes encounter rather narrowly specialized groups, for example, keratinophils, which decompose a very persistent protein of animal origin, keratin, and develop on remains containing it - hooves, horns, bird feathers, hair, etc. However, the specialization of these fungi is determined mainly by their low ability to compete for food with other, faster growing or antibiotic-producing microorganisms. Such fungi avoid competition by occupying specific substrates that are inaccessible to other organisms.
Heterotrophic method plant nutrition
general characteristics heterotrophic plants
Thus, heterotrophic nutrition of cells and tissues becomes common, as does photosynthesis.
The heterotrophic method of nutrition is the assimilation of both low-molecular organic compounds and high-molecular ones (proteins, fats, carbohydrates), but they must undergo processing - digestion. In plants, there are 3 types of digestion: intracellular - in the cytoplasm, vacuoles, plastids, protein bodies, spherosomes; membrane, carried out by enzymes cell membranes; extracellular - enzymes formed in special cells are released into the external environment and act outside the cells.
Saprophytes
The mechanisms of saprophytic nutrition of plants and fungi are similar. In the plasmalemma of fungal hyphae there is a H + -pump (hydrogen pump), with the help of which acid hydrolases are released into the environment. This leads to the hydrolysis of complex organic compounds, which are then absorbed by the fungus. The suction mechanism is also associated with the operation of the H + pump in the plasmalemma. When the outer membrane zone is acidified, the dissociation of organic acids decreases and they penetrate into cells in the form of neutral molecules. This method is common among algae (diatoms that live at depths where light does not penetrate, feed on organic substances from environment). When there is a large amount of soluble organic matter in water bodies, chlorococcal, euglena and other algae switch to heterotrophic nutrition.
U angiosperms The saprophytic method of nutrition is rare. These plants have little or no chlorophyll and are not capable of photosynthesis. To build their bodies, they use the rotting remains of plants and animals. Gidiophytum formicarum - a subshrub, the stem of which forms a large tuber, penetrated by numerous passages in which ants settle. The plant uses the waste products of ants as food. The tagged fly larvae were digested by the plant after a month.
Mycorrhiza is used by most plants mainly to increase the absorption of water and mineral salts.
Rafflesia feeds on the juices of the roots of tropical vines. It penetrates into the host's body with the help of haustoria, which secrete enzymes that destroy cell walls. Rafflesia spends its entire life in the body of the owner - underground. Only its flowers (diameter 1.5 m, red with the smell of rotting meat) appear on the surface of the soil.
Carnivorous plants
Currently, over 400 species of angiosperms and insectivorous plants are known. They catch small insects and other organisms, digest them and use them as additional source nutrition. Most of them are found on nitrogen-poor swampy soils; there are epiphytic and aquatic forms. The leaves of insectivorous plants are transformed into special traps that also perform the function of photosynthesis. According to the method of catching it, plants are divided into two groups. 1) Passive fishing, prey a) sticks to the leaves, the glands of which secrete sticky mucus containing acidic polysaccharides (Biblis, rosolist), or b) falls into special traps in the form of jugs, urns, tubes, colored bright colors and secreting a sweet aromatic secretion (sarracenia, darlingtonia).
2) Active capture of insects a) gluing prey with sticky mucus and enveloping it with a leaf or hairs (butterfly, sundew), b) catching according to the trap principle - with the slamming of trapping leaves over the prey (aldrovanda, Venus flytrap), c) trapping bubbles into which insects are drawn in with water due to the vacuum maintained in them (pemphigus).
Common to all trapping devices is the attraction of insects with the help of polysaccharide mucus or fragrant secretion(nectar), secreted either by the trapping devices themselves, or by glands near the trap. Rapid movements of the hunting organs are carried out by changes in turgor in them in response to irritation of the sensitive hairs caused by the movements of the insect.
Digestion.An insect caught in a trap is digested under the influence of the secretion of numerous glands. Some insectivores paralyze their prey with alkaloids contained in the secreted mucus (sundewdews secrete the alkaloid conitine, which paralyzes the insect). Sticky mucus contains many acidic polysaccharides consisting of xylose, mannose, galactose and glucuronic acid, organic acids and a number of hydrolases active in acidic environment. Acidic mucous secretions, nitrogen- and phosphorus-containing breakdown products stimulate the work of glands that secrete acids (formic, benzoic), as well as proteases and a number of other hydrolases. The proteolytic activity of the flycatcher secretion has been studied in some detail. Secretory cells have a well-developed ER and Golgi apparatus, which produce a large number of secret.
Absorption of decomposition products is carried out by the same glands connected to the conductive system (after 5 minutes). The dominant role in the transport of digestive products belongs to simplast. Thus, the process of digestion in insectivorous plants is carried out fundamentally in the same way as in the stomach of animals. In both cases, acids are secreted ( HCI - in the stomach, formic acid - in insectivorous plants). The acid reaction of digestive juice itself promotes digestion animal food. The fundamental similarity of the process of acidic extracellular digestion in animals and plants was first pointed out by Darwin in his book “Insectivorous Plants.”
It is currently known that acidification of the environment in the stomach of animals occurs as a result of the functioning of the H + pump in the plasmalemma of the cells of the gastric mucosa.
Many insectivorous plants live on soils poor in mineral elements. Their root system is poorly developed, there is no mycorrhiza, so absorption mineral elements from the caught prey has for them great importance. From the body of the prey, insectivorous plants obtain nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur. Carbon contained in amino acids and other breakdown products is also involved in the metabolism of insectivorous plants. (Darwin also showed that if sundew plants are fed with pieces of meat, then after three months they are significantly superior to control plants in a number of indicators, especially reproductive ones. It has been established that bladderwort plants bloom only after receiving animal food).
In nature, there are organisms - bacteria, fungi, plants, animals - that feed on ready-made organic compounds. The source of carbon for them is particles of dead things or waste products of living creatures of nature. Such creatures are called "saprophytes". What it is? Let's try to find out in this article.
origin of name
The name of this group of organisms comes from two Greek words: “rotten” and “plant”. From here you can literally understand the meaning of the concept. Saprophytes use waste products of other organisms and animal origin, often dead ones, as food.
The role of saprophytes
The role of these creatures of nature in the global circulation of substances is great. Every living organism must die someday. This is how nature works. Many saprophytes are designed to utilize dead tissue. Without them, the biosphere would simply choke in its own waste, and the entire Earth would be covered with waste products and waste. various organisms- living and dead. 
Saprophytes act in nature as janitors, clearing space for new life. They also decompose organic tissues into their constituent elements, which are then used by other organisms for their own nutrition and functioning.
What bacteria are called saprophytes?
The total number of bacteria living on planet Earth is truly countless and cannot be accurately calculated. Microorganisms, from the point of view of classification in biology, are the most numerous Kingdom. Most of the existing bacteria are saprophytes.
Main functions
Saprophytic bacteria: what are they? Their purpose is to decompose organic matter into aquatic environments and soil, participate in mineralization, circulation chemical elements. Azotobacteria, for example, take an active part in the process of nitrogen fixation. Some are the most important links in the transformation of carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus. And other microorganisms “help” a person cook food products. After all, the process directly depends on saprophytes. Sour cream, cottage cheese, cheese, fermented baked milk, pickles, weak alcohol - those products that simply could not exist without bacteria.
Blue-green algae
These cyanobacteria are involved in the production of oxygen. Scientists believe that it was these ancient microorganisms that began to form the Earth’s atmosphere several billion years ago. After all, at that time there were no trees and other plants that released oxygen. But bacteria existed. Even now - due to their large number - their share in the production of this gas is significant. 
Fungi and saprophytic plants
There are also representatives of this category: small and medium, even large. They use fallen leaves, humus, trunks and branches, manure, charcoal, feathers and down of birds, animal hair. In general - all organic matter available to them. For example, white honey fungus, sulfur-yellow false honey fungus, shaggy dung beetle, boletus, boletus and many others are saprophytes. Many forest mushrooms enter into symbiosis with higher plants (trees, shrubs), producing fertilizers necessary for plant nutrition from all kinds of plant and animal remains. 
All sorts of microscopic saprophytic fungi are of great importance (often not very pleasant). They often settle in food products, transforming them with their vital activity, creating both later edible and inedible products. Moldy bread and sour jam, fermented fruit juice, a rotten apple is their “handiwork.” Among the useful ones - tea mushroom, Indian rice, fungal fermentation in alcohol production.
There are also saprophytes. What it is? These representatives of the flora, as a rule, lack the elements of photosynthesis (pigments) and this process is carried out due to their adaptability to eating food from mushrooms, for example. The inability to carry out photosynthesis may be partial. Thus, some types of orchids depend only to a certain extent on fungi, but can additionally carry out photosynthesis. 
Such plants are called mycoheterotrophs. They number more than 400 different species.
Animals are saprophytes. What it is?
Among the fauna representatives there are also similar organisms. For example, saprophytic mites (arachnids). do not depend directly on other organisms, but in ready-made organic compounds still need it. They use decaying plant or animal tissues for their nutrition. More than 150 dust species are saprophytes, some of them are considered allergenic. They can only be seen under a microscope, since their sizes are minimal (average - 0.2 mm). The life expectancy of the animal is about four months. During this time, the female tick manages to lay up to 300 eggs. And just one gram of dust can “house” up to several thousand of these organisms. They eat scales of the skin layer of people, which are present in abundance where a person sleeps (according to science, a person can shed up to 700 grams of dead skin particles per year, and saprophytic dust mites feed on them).
ECOLOGICAL GROUPS OF MUSHROOMS
Towards environmental factors, which determine the growth, development, reproduction and distribution of organisms, include climatic(temperature, light, humidity, precipitation, etc.), food(substrate) factors, intraspecific interactions between different types of organisms in a certain habitat and some others.
IN this review described macromycete mushrooms, belonging to the following environmental groups:
Sh. Mycorrhizal mushrooms
, or symbiotrophs. A special group of forest soil fungi consists of very numerous mycorrhizal fungi. This is one of the main groups of mushrooms in the forest.
Mycorrhiza- symbiosis of roots higher plants with fungi - formed in most plants (with the exception of aquatic ones), both woody and herbaceous (especially perennial). In this case, the mycelium located in the soil comes into direct contact with the roots of higher plants. Based on how this contact occurs, three types of mycorrhizae are distinguished: endotrophic, ectotrophic and ectoendotrophic.
U endotrophic mycorrhizae, characteristic of most herbaceous plants, and especially of the orchid family, the fungus spreads mainly inside the root tissues and relatively little comes out. The roots bear normal root hairs. For most orchid species, such mycorrhiza is obligate, i.e. the seeds of these plants cannot germinate and develop in the absence of the fungus. For many other herbaceous plants, the presence of a fungus is not so necessary. Herbaceous plants enter into mycorrhizal symbiosis with microscopic fungi that do not form large fruiting bodies.
In endotrophic mycorrhiza, the biologically produced by the fungus is probably of great importance for higher plants. active substances type of vitamins. In part, the fungus supplies the higher plant with nitrogenous substances, since part of the fungal hyphae located in the root cells is digested by them. The fungus, in turn, receives organic substances - carbohydrates - from the higher plant.
Ectotrophic mycorrhiza It is distinguished by the presence of an outer sheath of fungal hyphae on the root. From this sheath, free hyphae extend into the surrounding soil. The root does not have its own root hairs. This mycorrhiza is characteristic of woody plants and is rarely found in herbaceous plants.
The transition between these types of mycorrhizae is ectoendotrophic mycorrhiza, more common than purely ectotrophic. Fungal hyphae with such mycorrhiza densely entwine the root from the outside and at the same time give abundant branches that penetrate into the root. This mycorrhiza is found in most tree species. In this mycorrhiza, the fungus receives carbon nutrition from the root, since it itself, being a heterotroph, cannot synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones. Its outer free hyphae diverge widely in the soil from the root, replacing the latter with root hairs. These free hyphae obtain water from the soil, mineral salts, as well as soluble organic substances (mainly nitrogenous). Some of these substances enter the root, and some are used by the fungus itself to build mycelium and fruiting bodies.
Most tree species forms mycorrhiza with mycelium cap mushrooms - macromycetes from the class of basidiomycetes, group of orders Hymenomycetes. The soil in the forest, especially near the roots of trees, is permeated with mycorrhizal fungi, and numerous fruiting bodies of these fungi appear on the soil surface. These are pink boletus (Leccinum scabrum), red boletus (Leccinum aurantiacum), camelina (Lactarius deliciosus), many types of russula (genus Russula) and many other cap mushrooms found only in the forest.
There are significantly fewer mycorrhizal fungi in the group of orders Gasteromycetes. These are mainly species of the genus Scleroderma. The common puffball (see description of the common puffball) enters into a mycorrhizal symbiosis with broad-leaved species. Edible species The genus Melanogaster also forms mycorrhizae mainly with the roots of deciduous trees. Their semi-underground fruiting bodies develop on the soil under a layer of leaf litter or shallowly in the soil, usually in deciduous forests. Melanogaster dubious (M. ambiguus) is especially common in oak and hornbeam forests from May to October. Its black-brown fruit bodies, 1-3 cm in diameter, smell like garlic and have a pleasant spicy taste. A closely related species, Melanogaster broomeianus (M. broomeianus), also found in deciduous forests, has larger (up to 8 cm in diameter) brown fruiting bodies with a pleasant fruity aroma.
The class of marsupial fungi (ascomycetes) also contains a small number of mycorrhizal fungi. These are mainly species with underground fruiting bodies belonging to the order Truffles (Tuberales). Black, or true, truffle (Tuber melanosporum) grows in forests along with oak, beech, hornbeam on calcareous gravelly soil, mainly in the south of France; it is not found on Russian territory. White truffle (Choiromyces meandriformis), common in Russia, grows in deciduous forests with birch, poplar, elm, linden, willow, rowan, and hawthorn.
For mycorrhizal fungi, such symbiosis is mandatory. Even if their mycelium can develop without the participation of tree roots, fruiting bodies are usually not formed in this case. Failures of attempts are associated with this artificial breeding the most valuable edible forest mushrooms, such as the porcini mushroom (Boletus edulis). It forms mycorrhiza with many tree species: birch, oak, hornbeam, beech, pine, spruce.
Some types of fungi form mycorrhizae with only one specific species. Thus, the larch butterfly (Suillus grevillei) forms mycorrhiza only with larch. For trees, symbiosis with fungi is also important: experiments in forest belts and forest plantations have shown that without mycorrhiza, trees develop worse, are stunted in growth, are weakened, and are more susceptible to diseases.
IV. A special ecological group consists of coprotrophic mushrooms(from the Greek word "kopros" - dung), settling on the droppings of herbivores. This ecological group includes, first of all, numerous species of the genus Coprinus, or dung beetle (Coprinus), from the family Corrinaceae (order Agariaceae). They are often found in gardens, orchards, near livestock farms, in meadows and on the edges of forests where livestock graze. There are also coprotrophs among marsupial fungi, for example, species of the genus Humaria.
V. The group is just as specific carbophilus mushrooms, growing on old fire pits or conflagrations. Mushrooms of this group have weak competitive ability compared to other mushrooms and therefore grow where there are no other mushrooms. Carbophils include, for example, Geopyxis carbonaria from the class of marsupials or species of the genera Lyophyllum and Pholiota from the class of Basidiomycetes. Thus, coal flake (Pholiota carbonaria) is a typical inhabitant of old fire pits.
Thus, fungi are present in all plant communities, take an active part in their life, are in close relationship with all the organisms inhabiting them, and participate in the general circulation of substances.
On our website you can also get acquainted with general information about mushrooms of Russia pocket field identification of mushrooms in central Russia,
as well as colored laminated definition tables on mushrooms of central Russia: Mushrooms: part 1 and Mushrooms: part 2, containing images of the most common species of mushrooms in central Russia.
Fungi live everywhere: in water, soil, on wood and plant litter, on living tissues of plants and animals. The osmotrophic method of nutrition places mushrooms in a very specific category of organisms in the food chain for the transformation of substances and energy. Fungi play the role of decomposers in the ecosystem, decomposing complex organic substances into simpler ones.
Saprotrophic fungi.
Saprotrophic fungi are widespread and are part of all main types of terrestrial biocenoses. Together with bacteria and animals, they carry out the very important function of decomposition and mineralization of dead plant organs, corpses and animal excrement. The importance of saprotrophic fungi is especially great in forest phytocenoses, where annually a large amount of litter (dead leaves, roots, branches, etc.) enters the soil and onto its surface. Fungi, differing from bacteria in having a more developed enzymatic system, take a major part in the destruction of a number of difficult-to-decompose compounds , in particular fiber and lignin.
Among the saprotrophs the following can be distinguished environmental groups: soil, xylotrophs (on wood), coprotrophs (on manure), aquatic.
Soil saprotrophs
Fungi living in the soil participate in the formation of its structure. They are in complex relationships with mycorrhiza-forming fungi and with other soil organisms, being food for some soil animals (nematodes, mites, springtails, etc.), competing for resources, secreting antibiotics and toxic substances for bacteria and plants.
In the forest litter, 78-90% of the biomass of all microorganisms are fungi. The length of fungal hyphae in 1 g of dry soil of a deciduous forest is 393 m, and in 1 g of humus – 4000-8000 m.
The species diversity of fungi (especially micromycetes) in the soil is very difficult to establish; it depends on the number of samples studied. Thus, for three types of soils in forests, when studying 1200 samples, from 185 to 286 species of fungi were found.
In the zone of chemical secretions, hyphae - hyphosphere, a specific microbiocenosis is created. Thus, in the hyphosphere of basidiomycetes, the number of marsupials and imperfect fungi sharply decreases and the number of some groups of bacteria increases. These fungi are characterized by a rich set of antibiotic substances, which allows them to successfully compete for substrate with other microorganisms.
Among soil fungi, two groups are clearly distinguished:
Humus mushrooms, feeding on semi-decomposed plant debris and organic matter soils, are distributed mainly in the upper, richest soil horizons in organic matter and play an important role in the soil-forming process. Representatives: mucor zygomycetes and imperfect fungi (Aspergillus etc.), with penicillium being the most common soil fungi in the northern and central regions, and heat-loving aspergillus in the southern region. In addition to micromycetes, many marsupial and basidiomycetes (petsits, champignons, rowers, etc.) also feed on soil organic matter.
Litter mushrooms carry out the primary decomposition of litter, which is then decomposed by humus saprotrophs. Found on dead, non-lignified parts of plants covering the soil (for example, in the forest floor) and in top layer soil. Representatives: many agaric basidiomycetes (talkers, mycenae, non-gnus fungi, etc.), some marsupials and imperfect fungi .
Xylotrophs
Big number fungi develops on wood. Unlike soil-dwelling fungi, their enzyme composition is more specialized: they secrete active enzymes that decompose fiber (cellulases, xylanases) and lignin - the main components of lignified cell walls plants.
Many saprotrophic tinder fungi cause great harm national economy, as they cause rotting of wooden buildings, piles, wells, scaffolding, and floors in huts.
At the final stage of wood decomposition, imperfect fungi (penicillium, trichoderma, etc.) participate, forming molds of green, gray and other colors.
Water
Blastocladiaceae and monoblepharidae from Chytridiomycota- aquatic saprotrophs living on organic residues in water. A group of imperfect fungi constantly found in water, adapted to the decomposition of dead plant substrate that enters the water: fallen leaves, dead wood. They did not acquire zoospores (an example of the irreversibility of evolution), however, adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle was manifested in them in the peculiar form of large multicellular conidia, often with outgrowths and rays. This form allows conidia to cling to objects in the water stream and settle on them.
Coprotrophs
Some fungi develop in the dung of herbivores. Along with highly specialized imperfect fungi capable of mastering various substrates, highly specialized coprophiles from the classes Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes and several species of basidiomycetes. Many of them are characterized by the following features:
Phototropism of spore-bearing structures, for spores to fall on a well-lit surface, where the best grass stand is.
Active dispersal of spores to reach plants.
The spores are covered with sticky mucus, which ensures their attachment to the leaves of herbaceous plants.
Spores germinate only after passing through the animal’s intestines, because dense shells must first be loosened by gastric enzymes.
Adaptations of these fungi have led to their connection life cycles with the food cycle of herbivores. Their spores with a high degree of probability fall on the leaves and attach to them, are eaten by animals, and after digestion of food are thrown out along with manure, in which mycelium develops and sporulation is formed
Phytopathogenic fungi
1. Short latency period , those. time from infection to the formation of new spores. Rust fungi have about 10 days, and the causative agent of potato late blight - 3-4 days.
2. Open sporulation. Spores form on the surface of plants. They are easily detached from the spore carriers and can be spread by wind or rain splashes.
3. High productivity. On 1 hectare of wheat field with moderate infection, 10 11 uredospores, the causative agent of rust, or 10 12 conidia, the causative agent of powdery mildew, are formed daily.
These features provide, if available, favorable conditions rapid accumulation and spread of fungal spores over a large space.
Based on the characteristics of the damage, the following groups of phytopathogenic fungi can be distinguished:
Fungi that come from the soil. These are necrotrophic pathogens that kill plant tissue during infectious process. Many of them are species-specific and affect wide circle host plants and are able to feed saprotrophically. Chytridiomycete Olpidium brassicae causes blackleg of cabbage seedlings, an oomycete Pythium and basidiomycete Thanatephorus sisimeris(anamorph Rhizoctonia solani) - beet rootworm, lodging of pine seedlings and other diseases. Many of these fungi live permanently in the soil, feeding on plant debris. Infecting the roots and underground parts of the stems, they provoke their rapid death with their toxins, after which they continue to develop on dead tissues.
Tumor and wilt fungi. They affect the bark and vascular system of plants and most often lead to the death of the plant.
Epidemic Criphonectria V North America led to the death of chestnut forests in the eastern United States. In affected trees, the growth of shoots from basal buds is activated, but new shoots, reaching 15 years of age, are also affected and die.
Damage to the bark of coniferous trees is often carried out by basidiomycetes from Uredinales(rusty). Resin flows abundantly from wounds caused by aecidia, as a result of which dead branches acquire a gray color from frozen resin. Pine trees with dry tops or side branches gray found in densely populated areas where the natural resistance of plants is weakened due to polluted air and compacted soil.
Huge harm Elm trees are affected by Dutch elm disease, which is caused by an ascomycete. Ophiostoma ulmi. The spores of the fungus are carried on the body of bark beetles, which, feeding on elm flowers, introduce infection into the wounds. Mycelium develops into vascular system, releases toxic products that lead to weakening and then death of trees. Weakened trees become prey for bark beetles. In the galleries made by bark beetles inside the tree, sporulation of the fungus is formed, so the beetles emerging from the tunnels carry spores on their bodies and transfer them to new trees. Deuteromycetes of the genus Verticillium also cause xylem damage and rapid wilting of many woody plants - wilt.
Stem rot. Caused by basidiomycetes fungi. Some of them (autumn honey fungus, root sponge) penetrate through root system, others (true, false, sulfur-yellow and other tinder fungi) - through wounds on the trunks, and are often brought in by insect pests. These fungi develop perennial mycelium in the affected wood. The type of rot is determined by a set of fungal enzymes. Some tinder fungi secrete predominantly cellulases and destroy fiber, resulting in the formation brown rot with the disintegration of the affected wood into crumbling pieces of prismatic shape. Other types of polypores preferentially decompose lignin, causing white rot; the wood becomes light in color with dark streaks and breaks down into cellulose fibers.
Pathogens of generative organs. They affect inflorescences, flowers, fruits, and seeds. Often called sharp decrease seed productivity, but do not lead to the death of the plant itself. Example: smut mushrooms, ergot Claviceps purpurea,
The susceptibility of plants to phytopathogenic fungi strongly depends on environmental conditions and the type of community. So in different types In spruce forests, the number of affected species of the herb-shrub layer was:
· sedge-sphagnum spruce forest 4 of 19
· grass spruce forest 21 of 54
· Priruchevoy spruce forest 26 of 41
In general, in natural communities, pathogenic fungi affect, according to various observations, from 21 to 63% (usually 30-50%) of plant species, i.e. not all types.